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I. 






THE COMMUNITY 

AND 

THE CITIZEN 


BY 

ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND CIVICS 
SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL 
Indianapolis, Indiana 


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The Echo Press 
Indianapolis 








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LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

SEP 21 »906 

/7 CeoynrAt Entry 

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/LASy A XXc., Ne. 

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COPY B. 


Copyright 1906 by 
ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN 






CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER. 

I. The Beginning of a Community. 

II. WiiAT IS A Community? 

III. The Site of the Community. 

lY. What the People of the Community are Seek¬ 
ing. 

V. The Family. 

VI. Some Services Rendered to the Community by 

THE Family. 

VII. The Making of Americans. 

VIII. IIoM' THE Relations between the Land and the 

People are Made Permanent and Definite. 

IX. IIoAV the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy 

HIS Desire for Health. 

X. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Pro¬ 

tect HIS Life and Property. 

XI. How the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy 

HIS Desire for AVealth. 

XII. How THE Community Aids the Citizen in Trans¬ 

portation AND Communication. 

XIII. IIoAV THE Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy 

HIS Desire for Knoavledge. 

XIV. IIoAA’ the Community Aids the Citizen to Satisfy 

HIS Desire for Beautiful Surroundings. 

XV. IIoAA' the Citizens of a Community Govern 

Themselves. 

XVI. Some Defects in the Self-Government of Our 

Communities. 

XVII. The Government of the Rural Community: 

Toaa^nship and County. 

XVIII. The Government of the City. 

XIX. The Government of the State. 

XX. The Government of the Nation. 

Appendix. The Constitution of the United States. 








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PREFACE. 


The aim and spirit of the present book are to be 
found in the following quotation from Professor 
Dewey’s **Ethical Principles Underlying Education*': 
“ The social work of the school is often limited to 
training for citizenship, and citizenship is then 
interpreted in a narrow sense as meaning capac¬ 
ity to vote intelligently, a disposition to obey 

laws, etc.The child is to be not only a voter 

and a subject of law; he is also to be a member 

of a family.He is to be a worker, engaged in 

some occupation which will be of use to society 
and which will maintain his own independence 
and self-respect. He is to be a member of some 
particular neighborhood and community, and must 
contribute to the decencies and graces of civiliza¬ 
tion wherever he is.To suppose.that a good 

citizen is anything more than a thoroughly effi¬ 
cient and serviceable member of society.is a 

cramped superstition which it is hoped may soon 







PREFACE 


disappear from educational discussion.Training 

for citizenship is formal and nominal unless it 
develops the power of observation, analysis, and 
inference with respect to what makes up a 
social situation and the agencies through which 
it is modified.” 

Great care has been taken to adapt the 
method of treatment and the language to 
the abilities and training of eighth grade pupils, 
as well as of pupils of the first year or two 
of the high school. The body of the text is 
meant rather to be suggestive and illustrative; 
the real work to be done by the pupil is in 
connection with the topics suggested at the end 
of each cliapter, and others suggested by the 
teacher. “Observation, analysis, and inference” 
are the essentials of the pedagogical method 
adopted. Attention is called to the opportunity 
oft'ered to make use of local history in a natural 
and effective way. 

The author wishes to acknowledge his indebt¬ 
edness to Professors Albion W. Small and George 
E. Yincent, of the University of Chicago, for sug¬ 
gestions with regard to the method of approaching 
the subject of this book, derived from courses 
taken at the University under their tuition, and 
from the use of their little book, "'Aji Introduction 
to the Study of Society/* on various occasions. 

ARTHUR W. DUNN. 

Indianapolis, September 1, 1900. 



THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


CHAPTER 1. 


THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 



About seventy years ago a company of people in 
New York thought of founding a settlement in the 
Why the far west. Their purpose was to build 

settlement was . /. • • 

made. a College for the education of Christian 

ministers. The first step they took toward 
actual settlement was to appoint two com¬ 
mittees. One of these was an exploring committee, 
to search for a suitable site. The other was a com¬ 
mittee to find families who were willing to go. 

The exploring committee was given certain in¬ 
structions to guide it in its search: 

1. What is the quality of the water in wells 
and springs? 

2. Do the streams in the neighbor- 

What the 

was ^ise in, or pass through, swamps? 

to look for. they rise from springs ? Are 

they rapid or sluggish? 

3. Are there marshes in the vicinity? 


1 


9 


THE CO^NBIT^ITY AYE THE CITIZEX 


4. Is the land level or rolling? 

5. What is the quality and depth of the soil? 

6. Is there a convenient and ahnndant supply 
of timber and fuel? 

7. Is there water power? If not, is there 
coal? 

8. Are there navigable streams, or canals and 
roads already built or proposed? 

After a three months' search a suitable location 
was found in a beautiful rolling prairie country, 
on the Avatershed between two large 

The site selected , . .. /» i i xi 

rivers, neither of Avhich Avas more than 
fifty miles distant. The prairie land Avas very fer¬ 
tile. Near at hand Avas a large tract of Avoodland 
containing oak, black Avalnut, and other fine trees, 
affording shelter during the first liard Avinter, 
before substantial liouses could be built upon the 
open prairie, and supplying building material and 
fuel. Tliere were numerous springs and streams 
Avhich afforded water and good drainage. Since the 
settlement lias become a city one of these streams 
has become something of a menace to health 
because of the refuse drained into it. Near by 
there Avas found an abundance of coal, and in the 
course of time there \A'as discovered a great 
deposit of shale, good for the making of paving 
brick, one of the chief industries of the city at the 
present time. The settlement was made before 
the day of railroads, and there were feAv Avagon 


THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 


3 


roads and no canals in the region. Bnt the loca¬ 
tion of the site was snch that it was felt that 
roads were bound to center there in the near 
future. This proved to be the case. 

The committee to find families was also success¬ 
ful. Thirty families, comprising one hundred and 

The cemmittee Seventy persoiis, were found who would 
to find families Settlement the first year. 

The settlement founded by these thirty families 
still takes pride in the fact that it is “a city of 
homes.” This is an important fact, as we 

A city of homes 

shall see in another chapter. 

It Avas said at the beginning of this chapter that 
the purpose of those who planned the settlement 
was to found a college to educate Christian minis¬ 
ters. The families who Avere chosen to make up 
the settlement Avere selected, therefore, with a 
AueAV to getting those Avho Avould take an 
St™ofThl"*®'’ interest in this purpose. The communi- 

settlers • T 

ty Avas noted for its zeal for education and 
religion. But this Avas not all that concerned these 
families. If you Avill examine the instructions 
giA^en to the exploring committee, you Avill see 
that care AA^as to be taken to find a site favorable 
to health. Which of the instructions indicate this? 
It must also be favorable to the production of 
wealth. Which of the instructions indicate this? 
And there must be easy means of communication 
among themselves and Avith the outside world. 


4 


THE CO^BIENITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Which of the instructions indicate this? When 
the little colony settled on the site, they not only 
planned to build a church, a college, and a com¬ 
mon school; but they also l)uilt houses to shelter 
them, they began to cultivate the soil, they put up 
a sawmill and a grist-mill. While many of the 
necessary occupations, such as making clothing 
and shoes, repairing tools, and making furniture, 
at first took place in each liouseliold, carpenters, a 
blacksmith, a slioemaker, and other tradesmen 
soon settled in the community. For social Ufe^ they 
had tlieir singing schools and quilting parties. 

The early life of this little community was very 
simple. Each man, witli his ‘ neighbors’ help, 
chopi)ed and hauled the logs with which to build 
his cabin. In the edge of the grove there were ‘hi 
dozen or two log cabins, some built without a nail 
ora i)ane of glass; with the spaces between the 
logs cliinked with mud; witli outside cliimneys 

made of clay and sticks; with boxes, 
the early barrels and short logs for chairs, a large 

community. 

box for the table, and a one-post bed¬ 
stead for an honored guest.” Each man was his 
own mechanic, some were their own cobblers, and 
the wives were the tailors and dress-makers. A 
family in “ average circumstances ” is described 
as having “enough money to ])ay taxes and post¬ 
age. Servants Avere rare and were on equal terms 
Avith the family. The cabins AAere adorned by 


THE BEGINNING GF A COMMUNITY 


o 


such simple means as sticking four balls of clay 
upon the cornersAh* the chimneys. It is said that 
it was strange “ how quickly, under the good taste 
and deft fingers of the ladies of the colony, these 
cabins took on a cozy air and an appearance of 
beauty and refinement.” Books and papers were 
few, and were handed about from house to house 
to be read. Money was scarce, so that the ex¬ 
change of goods took place by barter. Farm pro¬ 
duce had to be hauled by wagon straight across the 
prairie to the nearest large town, lifty miles away. 
When any great undertaking was proposed, like 
the building of the church, all the men of tlie 
community united in doing it. They chopped and 
hauled the logs from the grove, they hewed out 
the timbers, they put the frame together, and 
raised the building. 

The people in this little community, selected as 
they had been with great care by a committee. 
Harmony in the Y Gi’e remarkably harmonious in the be- 
gilining, lliey were ot one nationality, 
they were of Puritan principles. They all rallied 
around the idea of the Christian college. So har¬ 
monious were they that for a time they hardly felt 
the need of a government. If any differences arose 
they were at first settled by the church organiza¬ 
tion. But witli the coming of more set- 

Qovernment. . i n j i i • j 

tiers. With diflerent ideas and interests, 
it became necessary to form a goveriiment. 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


G 


Snell was the beginning of this community, 
which has developed until to-day it is a thriving 
city with handsome homes, busy streets, noisy fac¬ 
tories, churches, schools, and libraries. It is a great 
railroad center, being thus brought into the life of 
the world outside. It is a center of culture and re¬ 
finement, and a pleasant place to live. 

FOR IXVESTTGATTOX. 


1. Wliere did the first settlers in yonr own eoininnnity 
come from? 

2. Why did these first settlers come? 

3. How was the journey from their old home to the new 
settlement made? 

4. Give a description of pioneer life in your own community 
in the earliest times of which you can get information. 

0 , When New England was colonized, did the character of 
the site influence the life of the colony? Did the character 
of the people do so? 

6. What were the purposes that led the colonists to settle in 
New England? Compare with the purposes of the settlement 
described in this chapter, 

7. Des(Tibe the life of the people in Massachusetts Day 
colony during the first few years of their settlement, and com¬ 
pare with the life of the settlement in the west as described on 
pp. 4 and 5 of this chapter, and with the pioneer life of your 
©wn community. 


CHAPTER II. 


WHAT IS A COMMUNITY? 


The story of the founding of the colony in the 
west was told in the last chapter because it illus¬ 
trates certain things about coinninnities that we 
should know. Each one of ns is a member of a 
community. We wish to know just what onr 
community is, and how it grew. We wish 
especially to know what it does for ns, and what 
we owe to it. 

The community whose beginnings we noticed in 
the last chapter consisted of a group of people who 
Definition of a Settled together in a single locality, and 
community Were boiiiul to eacli other by 

common interests. They were also subject to 
common laws. This may be taken as a detinition 
Lar^e and small cominiiiiity. It iiuiy be large or 

small, lliat is, the people may be 
many or few, and the locality in which they live 
may include a large area or a small one. Thus, a 
group of neighboring farmers with their families 


8 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


may constitute a community. In this case the 
area occupied may be rather large, while the peo¬ 
ple are few in number. Or the community may 
be a city, with a dense population in a compara¬ 
tively small a^’ea. Again, each State in our 
Union is a community, and so is our nation, 
because each is composed of a group of people 
occupying a common territory and governed by 
common interests and common laws. The nation 
How communi- is coiiiposed of State communities, and 

ties unite into i ■ i • 

larger ones. eacli State IS iiuide uj) ot many city and 
rural communities. How two or more small com¬ 
munities may unite into a larger one may be illus¬ 
trated in this way: You may live in a small city 
which is a community in itself, with its group of 
people, its boundaries, its common interests, and 
its common hiAVS. A few miles outside of your 
city is a community of farmers, whose houses are 
far apart, but who have common interests, such 
as keeping up the roads and bridges in their 
neighborliood. But the farmers bring tlieir pro¬ 
duce to the city for the use of the people there, 
and in turn depend upon the city for many of 
their‘necessities and pleasures. The country and 
the city communities thus have certain interests 
in common, and their dealings with each other 
are regulated liy common laws. You are there¬ 
fore a memlier not only of your city community, 
but also of the one including .the farmers, of a 


WIIAT IS A COMMUNITY 


9 


larger one including the whole State, and of a 
still larger one including the nation. 

Being a ineml)er of a conimiinity means that 
each one of us takes part in, and contributes to, 

Memhershln In 1110111- 

a community. receive life 

from the body, and contribute to its life. In a 
similar way your life is closely interwoven with 
the life of the community in whicli you live. You 
can imagine yourself shut off from mankind, like 
Kobinson Crusoe, and living; but wliat a narrow 
life it would lie 1 The best of your life conies 
from your participation in tlie life of your com¬ 
munity, as will be made perfectly clear as we go 
on with our study. When we speak of citizen¬ 
ship we usually mean this membership in the 
community, with its giving to, and receiving 
from, the community’s.life. Citizenship 

Citizenship. . -.i • • -i i 

carries with it certain privileges and 
certain duties. 

No community ever appeared fully formed, but 
each has grown from very small beginnings. It 
Communities is like the growth of a plant from the 

grow from small ^ j i i 

beginnings. seed. 1011 may liave seen a tangled 
mass of vines growing from a common root, but 
with the branches and tendrils so interwoven tliat 
you would have found it difficult to trace one of 
them back to the main trunk. So in a great com¬ 
munity like a city, or like our nation, we find the 


10 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


structure and the organization so complicated 
that it is often difficult to understand them. It 
is easier to take a community in its earlier and 
simpler stages, like that of the last chapter, for a 
beginning of our study, and then to trace its 
growth into the more complicated forms. 

Two things are necessary to the existence of 
every community. There must be a group of 
The people and people, and there must be a locality —a 

the land both 

contribute to ^ilace foi* the people to live. In begin- 
community. study we uiust remember that 

the people and the locality both contribute some¬ 
thing to make our community what it is. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Talk over in class the four essentials of a community— 
the group of people, the site, the common interests, and the 
common laws. Apply to your own community. 

2. Give examples of commnnities, large and small, with 
which you are acquainted. 

3. Indicate some dl the things in which your family and 
your nearest neighbors have a common interest because of living 
close together. 

4. Show how an injury or a benefit to one person may be 
an injury or a benefit to the whole (‘ommunity of which the 
person is a meml)er. 

o. What are some of the things in which the people of 
a city and the neighboring farmers would have a common 
interest? 

6. Name some things in which all the cities of a State would 
have a common interest. 

7. What are some tilings in which the whole nation has a 
common interest? 

8. M hat are some of the things that a citizen receives from 
Ins community? 

9. AVhat may a citizen give to his community? 


CHAPTER III. 

THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY. 

The land enters into the life of the coinmuni^^ 
in many ways. We may compare the growth of a 
Importance commiinity in its relation to the land, 
of the land. growth of a plant. Tlie plant 

enters into vital relations witli the soil, deriving 
its very life from it. Some kinds of plants 
lloiirish in one kind of soil, other kinds in other 
soils. And in the case of all plants, their size and 
fruitfulness depend not merely upon the kind of 
seed sown, l)iit also upon the character of the soil. 
It is the same with commimities. Whether a 
community shall live or die may depend entirely 
upon the character of its site. 

The importance of the character of the land is 
seen very clearly in the account of the founding 
of the community in chapter 1 . It is not always 
that the site of a community is planned so 
thoroughly beforehand in all its details as in that 
case. But it is always important. 


11 


12 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Natural geograpliical conditions usually deter¬ 
mine where large cities shall grow. Nature 
In determining seeuis to liave planned the mouth of the 

where cities 

shaii grow. Hiidsoii Kivei* as the site of the greatest 
city on the Atlantic coast. A good harbor like 
that of Boston or San Francisco; tlie junction of 
two navigable rivers, as at Pittsburg or St. Louis; 
the falls of a river, checking navigation and 
affording water power, as at Minneapolis or Louis¬ 
ville ; the head of a river estuary, as at Quebec or 
Philadelphia; the center of a rich region where 
roads naturally cross, as at Indianapolis—all these 
are conditions favoring, if not determining, the 
growth of large communities. 

The health of a community depends in many 
ways upon the character of the land. Low, flat 
In relation regioiis are likely to be unhealthful. 
to health. Sluggish streams, or lakes that tend to 
become stagnant, are disease breeders. The sup¬ 
ply of drinking water is an important matter, and 
this often depends upon the character of the 
underlying rocks into which wells are dug. These 
things often become of the greatest importance 
in cities, where the population is dense, for the 
artificial drainage may be good or bad according 
to the character of the natural drainage; and the 
water supply is in much greater danger of pollu¬ 
tion than in smaller communities. A stream 
whicli in its natural state may have been clear 


THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY 


13 


and sparkling, may become, in the heart of a 
city, a foul breeding place of disease. 

Climate must be taken into consideration as 
one of the conditions of community life. A little 
Influence of thought will sliow liow it may deter- 
rnine the mode of life—the character 
of the houses, the form of clothing, and even the 
nature of the sports and amusements of the 
people. 


Of natural 
resources. 


The influence of natural resources upon the 
forms of industry, and upon the growth and pros¬ 
perity of communities, is so clear that it 
is not necessary to dwell upon it in this 
chapter. Can you not think of some cities in the 
United States that are celebrated for industries 
which depend upon the presence of important nat¬ 
ural resources? 

In many rural communities the farmers are iso¬ 
lated from each other quite completely during a 
part of the year because of the impassability of 
the roads, due to a soil which forms a deep mud, 
or to a flat and swampy character of the land. 
This necessarily interferes with the social, busi¬ 
ness, and intellectual life of the farmers, and in¬ 
fluences their relations with each other in many 
Of surface ways. The social and business life of 

features. ^ affected if the site of the 

city is unusually hilly. A city may also be divid¬ 
ed into parts more or less distinct from eaclr other. 


14 


THE COM:\n^NITY ANT) THE CITIZEN 


and with differing characteristics, by a river and 
its branches. Such a city is Chicago with its 
North, West and South “Sides.” 

We may take one or two illustrations on a larger 
scale. Virginia is a good example ot how the land 
may shape tlie character and history of a large 
community. Tlie whole history of this colony and 
State was determined to a remarkable extent by 
conditions of climate, soil, and surface features 
which encouraged the cultivation of the tobacco 
plant. This industry required the cultivation of 
large plantations, which were distributed along 
the shores of the navigable rivers, of which there 
were many. These rivers were large enough to 
permit the ocean vessels of that time to pass far 
Influence up tlieir coui’ses. Therefore each planter 

of geogra* 

phy on the had his wluxrf, at which he loaded his 

development of 

Virginia. tobacco for shipment and received in 
return manufactured goods from abroad. These 
facts discouraged the growth of cities, and the pop¬ 
ulation became almost wholly rural. The character 
of the industry made necessary an abundance of 
cheap labor, and hence slavery gained a foothold. 
Tobacco was used as money; salaries and taxes 
were paid in it. The scattering of the population 
over wide areas made it difficult for the people to 
come together at a common meeting place, so that 
the township organization with its government by 
town-meeting, such as they had in New England, 


THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY 


15 


was impracticable, and the county system of gov¬ 
ernment developed instead. 

You who have studied the history of the United 
States need not be told tliat the character of our 
The home of national community depends in a large 
our nation. measure upon tlie character of the land. 

Our rich resources have made our land a land of 
opportunity to all. East of tlie Eocky Mountains, 
at least, the country is well fitted geographically 
to be the home of a single great nation, rather 
than of many small ones. The whole region from 
the Rockies to the Alleghenies is closely bound to¬ 
gether by river systems. And since the growth of 
railroads, even the Rocky Mountains have ceased 
to be a barrier. The navigable rivers in early 
days, and the ease of building"railroads in later 
times, have made the settlement of the country 
rapid. Our situation between the two great 
oceans has protected us from foreign aggression, 
at the same time that it has given us a great 
advantage in the commerce of the world. Our geo¬ 
graphical conditions have been favorable to the 
development of a great nation, united under com¬ 
mon interests and common laws. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. If you live on a farm, or are well acquainted with one, 
make a sketch map of it, showing position of highlands, low¬ 
lands, marshes, timber, streams ; also, houses, barns, roads, 
bridges. 


16 


THE COIVr^rUNITY AXD THE CITIZEX 


2. Did the features of the laud determine the location of the 
buildings? of the roads and bridges? the drainage of the farm? 
the kinds of crops raised on different parts of the farm? 

8. Has the character of the land infiuenccHl the life of the 
farmer’s family in any way? (Bear in mind climate, the change 
of seasons, the presence of woods, good or had roads, etc.; and 
think of their effects upon going to school or church, amuse¬ 
ments, social life, etc.) 

4. Dan you discover any advantages of the site of the 
town in which you live, or tlie nearest one to you, that deter¬ 
mined its location? How? 

5. Take the list of instructions given to the ex})loring com¬ 
mittee mentioned on page 1, and answer the questions there 
asked with reference to your own community. 

(f Make a map of the site of your town or city showing the 
natural drainage—i. e., the streams into which the land is 
drained. Is tlie drainage good or l)ad? Is it equally good in all 
parts of the city? 

7. What are the natural resources of the region in which 
your community is situated? How have they influenced the 
life of the community? 

8. Are the geograi)hicaI conditions in your community 
favoral:)le to good roads in the country districts? How does this 
influence the life of the towns? Of the farmers? 

9. Is your community divided into districts or regions by 
any natural features (hills, streams, etc.) ? Can you show any 
results of this fact upon the life of the community? 

10. Where does your supply of drinking water come from? 
What geograi)hical conditions affect it? 

11. Is your State noted for any particular industries? 
If so, what geogra])liical conditions have helped to make 
it so? 

12. Read Bryce on “The Home of the Nation,” in 
The American Commonwealth, Yol. H,, Chap, xci (abridged 
edition. Chap. Iviii). 

18. Can you think of any ways in which the government 
helps your community to get control over natural conditions? 
(Think of the crossing or navigation of streams, discovering 
the resources of the land, determining what the weather will 
be, etc.) 


CHAPTER IV. 


WHAT THE PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES ARE SEEKING 

The people who make up a community are all 
doing something. Is it not true that what makes 
Variety of a persoii interesting is the kind of 

activities in a 

varietytilings lie does, and perhaps the way he 
of desires. them? We judge of the worth of 

a person, just as we judge of the worth of a 
machine, by what he does. There is always a 
great variety of activities going on in a commu¬ 
nity. These activities are due to a variety of 
desires that men have. Man has been called a 
bundle of wants, and these wants are constantly 
leading Iiini to act in such a way as to satisfy 
them. 

First of all, men desire life and health. They 
will ordinarily give up anything in order to pre- 
The desire for serve their lives. Good health is one of 
life and health, niost priceless possessions. A per¬ 
fectly sound and healthy body is one of the 
greatest joys a man can have, and without it he is 


17 


18 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


unable to satisfy his other desires to the fullest 
extent. Kecall the provisions made for the pro¬ 
tection of life and health by the colonists men¬ 
tioned in the first chapter. 

Another thing that people want is to own some- 
thing. Boys and girls like to have things that 
they can call their own. The things 
that men seek to own—houses, cattle, 
books, pictures, etc.—constitute wealth. The desire 
for wealth is a very strong one, altliough it is 
stronger in some persons than in others. What a 
man owns is valuable because of what he can do 
with it. It helps him to sustain and protect life. 
It enables him to enjoy comforts and luxuries that 
he could not otherwise enjoy. It makes it possi¬ 
ble for him to educate himself, to satisfy his 
desire for art, to travel, and to engage more fully 
in social life. So men engage in farming, in 
manufacturing, in buying and selling, and many 
other things to satisfy their desire for wealth. 
These are among the most prominent activities of 
every community. 

Men also want knowledge. That is why children 
ask so many questions, and why boys like to take 
things to pieces to see how they are made. It is 
this desire that led Nansen to the arctic 

For knowledge. 

regions, and Stanley to the heart of 
Africa. It lies at the foundation of all science. 
This was one of the foremost desires that led to 


WHAT PKOPLE IN COMMUNITIES ARE SEEKING 19 


the founding of the settlement in the west 
(chap. I). 

Men also take pleasure in things that are beauti¬ 
ful. Tliis may lead to travel, to the collection of 
pictures, to l)eantifnl buildings, and to well kept 
streets and lawns. But what is beautiful to one 
is not always beautiful toothers. There 

For beauty. 

IS thus a great variety of activities 
for the satisfaction of the desire for things beau¬ 
tiful. In what way did this desire show itself in 
the community mentioned in the first cliapter? 

No race or tribe of men has ever been known 
that did not have some form of religion. The 
religious desire is characteristic of men. 
riifhteoiisness. every community there are certain 

things that men do to satisfy it. It may be the 
sacrificing of animals, as among the ancient 
Hebrews. It may be the throwing of children to 
the crocodiles, as in India. It may be tlie building 
of beautiful temples, as in ancient Greece. It 
may be a great war, like the Crusades. The 
spread of religion was the chief motive of 
the settlers mentioned in chapter I. What are 
some of tlie things done in your community to 
satisfy this desire? 

Men desire eompanionship. Man has been called a 
social animal. Certainly many of the things that 
P^^ men do are to satisfy tlieir desire for 

companionship. HoW fully COuld tllis 


20 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


desire be satisfied in tlie little coniniunity 
founded in the west? 

Almost everything that ])eople do, if not every¬ 
thing, is done to satisfy one or more of the desires 
named. Sometimes two or more desires work to¬ 
gether to produce a given act. Thus, a man’s 
desires for knowledge, for beautiful 

Some activities 

rcomb/nation ^ceiiery, and for health, may combine to 
of desires. j him to the mountains. When Ool- 

umbus sailed on his voyage of discovery, he was 
led by his desire for knowledge, his desire for 
wealth and his desire for the spread of religion, all 
working togetlier. Sometimes some one desire may 
seem to obscure every other desire in tlie life of a 
One desire persoii. The love of Wealth may take 

sometimes shuts . ^i . i i 

out all others, sucii possessioii ot a mail that lie lie- 
comes a miser, or perhaps dishonest. It has some¬ 
times happened that a man has become so 
enthusiastic in the pursuit of art, or of science, 
that he has sacrificed his health, or even life 
itself, as in the case of Andre who sailed for the 
north pole in a balloon. History tells us of men 
who were so devoted to what they believed to 
be their religious duty that they became hermits, 
shutting themselves away from all coni])anion- 
ship, denying themselves riches, mutilating and 
The well starving the body, and often suffer- 

rounded life. • i tv i 

ing death. Hut in every normal per¬ 
son tl]*ere are found all the desires named, and 


WHAT PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES ARE SEEKING 21 


tliB w6ll-rouTid6d life is muds up of uctivitics to satisfy 
all of them in due proportion. 

Two persons may have the same desires, but may 
attempt to satisfy them in different ways. The 
Flathead Indians bind boards upon the foreheads 
of their children, flattening them, because they 
Different ways think the result is beautiful. A certain 

of satisfying i i . 

the same desire, people blackeii their teeth and scorn 
Europeans who have ‘‘white teeth like dogs.” 
So among us there are people who seem to take 
delight in things that others regard as unlovely. 
The miser and the spendthrift both have wrong 
ideas of the use of wealth. A man’s desire for 
companionship may lead him into evil ways. 
This is one of the reasons for the power of the 
saloon. 

Where there are so many desires and so many 
ways of satisfying them it is not strange that the 
activities of people sometimes conflict, 
difrefind Of coui’se the robber, in his pursuit of 
of activities, coiiflicts witli the desires of 

others. Two men, in their desire for property, 
may get into a dispute over the boundaries of their 
land. One man may erect a cheap and ugly build¬ 
ing that is a nuisance in the neighborhood. An 
employer may impose upon his employes work that 
endangers their health. A crowd of young people 
in their love of sport and companionship may in¬ 
terfere with the peaceful pursuits and the com- 


22 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

fort of others. In order to have a perfectly work¬ 
ing community, each member of it must recognize 
the fact that all the other members liave tlieir de¬ 
sires, and an equal right to satisfy them. 

In the course of time men, living together in 
communities, have developed various means to 
Meanstosecure regulate tlieif activities in order to se- 
harmony. hariuony, and to prevent the rights 

of one from being interfered with by others. 
Three of these will be mentioned at tliis point: 

1. The school. Its chief purpose is to train chil¬ 
dren for citizenship; tliat is, for membership in the 
community. (See chapter XIII.) 

2. The church. It works through the religious 
desires of men. Its service in helping men to live 
liarmoniously together may be expressed by its 
teaching, “Do unto others as ye would ])e done by.” 

J3. Government. Government is a device which 
we have created to help us to live together 
in harmony, and to secure to eacli and all the full¬ 
est satisfaction of their desires. It is not some¬ 
thing placed over us from without, to tyrannize 
over us, and to be feared and antagonized. It is a 
friend of our own making, and should be cher¬ 
ished and supported by every citizen to the fullest 
extent possible. 

When our national government was organized, 
the first thing that the people did was to agree 
upon a Constitution, or fundamental law. So in 


WHAT PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES ARE SEEKING 23 


the organization of each of our States, a consti- 
The right of "tutioii is the first thing to be provided. 
Sfy their eacli of these constitutions one of 

guaranhid the chief parts is a statement of what the 

in constitutions. 

people consider to be their rights, which 
the government is to respect and protect. In the 
national Constitution this statement is brief, and 
is contained in the first ten amendments. In the 
State constitutions it is much longer and more de¬ 
tailed, because the government of the State en¬ 
ters very much more closely into the details of the 
life of the citizens than the national government. 
Among the most important rights that are thus 
guaranteed to the people are the right to life, the 
right to full protection of property, the right of edu¬ 
cation, and the right to perfect freedom of reli¬ 
gion. Compare these rights with the list of 

And protected ^esires giveii in this chapter. After this 
by government, people’s rights almOSt 

all the remainder of the State and national consti¬ 
tutions is devoted to the organization of the ma¬ 
chinery of government for securing to the people 
the rights so guaranteed to them. 

FOR INA"E8TIGATION. 

1. Compare the tilings you do on Saturday, Sunday and 
Monday. 

2. Think of the variety of things done by the different 
members of your family in the course of a day. 

3. Take the list of things you do in the course of Satur¬ 
day, Sunday, and Monday, and classify them according to 
the desires they are intended to satisfy. 


24 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


4. What things are done in your own home for the pur¬ 
pose of preserving life? For the protection of health? 

5. AVhat are some of the things, outside of your home, 
that the people of your community do to protect life and 
health? 

6. Do we owe it to others, as well as to ourselv^es, to keep 
our bodies sound? Why? 

7. Name some of the activities in your community by 
which wealth is accumulated. 

8. About what part of the time of the average man is 
given up each day to activities for the preservation of life 
and the accumulation of wealth? 

9. What desires are gratified by a person who does the 
following things:—paints his house; attends a concert; visits 
a sick friend; buys a book: makes a garden; keeps a dog; 
takes out a fire insurance policy; goes to a picnic; keeps a 
store; goes to church; attends a lecture? 

10. Can you think of persons in whom some of the desires 
named in this chapter seem to be lacking? What is the effect 
upon their lives? 

11. Can you think of activities in your community that are 
due to a combination of desires? 

12. Show how a person’s desire for companionship may 
conflict with his desire for knowledge; how his desire for 
wealth may conflict with his desire for health, for knowledge, 
or for companionship. 

13. Give illustrations of how some persons, in satisfying 
their desires, interfere with the attempts of others to satisfy 
theirs? 

14. Show how community life makes it easier for men to 
satisfy their desire for life; for health; for wealth; for 
knowledge; for beauty; for religion. 

15. Show how, in the school, the pupil who “does as he 
pleases” interferes with the liberty of others. Is it right 
that his own liberty should then be restricted? Why? 

1(3. Compare the life of the school with the life of the com¬ 
munity at large, pointing out similarities and differences. 

17. What does the preamble of the Constitution of the 
United States say is the purpose of establishing the Constitu¬ 
tion? Does It agree with the statements of this chapter 
(pp. 22 and 23)? 


WHAT PKOPI.E IX COMMUNPITES ARE SEEKING 25 


18. Study tofjothor in class the first ten amendnients to the 
Constitnticni of the United States and, if possil)le, a part of 
the ])ill of rights of yonr State constitution, coin])aring the 
statements here found with the classification of desires as 
given in this chai)ter. 

19. Discuss in class the difFerence between doing as one 
pleases and liberty. 


CHAPTER V. 


THE FAMILY. 


It was pointed out in the first chapter that the 
little community in the west was settled by 
The family families, and grew up to be a city of 

in the 

community. homes, a fact whicli is of great im¬ 
portance. There are cities in our land in which 
a large part of the population is without homes in 
the true sense of the word. The idea of a home 
includes the family group living in a dwelling 
separate from others, with all that goes to make 
up family life. In cities tliere are.tliousands of 
people, and especially young men, who have no 
families, and who often live in dwelling places 
with a great many others like themselves, Init 
with very little that we usually associate with 
home life. A part of this homeless population is 
a shifting population that does not stay in one 
place long enough to establish homes. An ex¬ 
treme illustration of this would be the tramps, 
who wander about from place to place, but who 


THE FAMILY. 


27 


assemble in cities in large numbers. The crimi¬ 
nal element of large cities is foimd chiefly in this 
shifting, homeless population. In the far west 
there are mining communities, and in the north 
lumber camps, composed almost entirely of men 
without families. In such communities life is 
rough, some of the best features of civilized life 
are lacking, and the community is likely to be 
lawless. This is in part due to the absence of 
home life, and especially to the absence of the 
refining influence of women. 

Let us first study the life of a pioneer family, 
cast almost entirely upon its own resources in a 
The pioneer couiitry, far froiii other human 

family. abodes. Let us suppose that this family 

consists of a man and his wife, a son sixteen 
years old, a daughter of fourteen, and a child of 
six or eight. They had lived in a farming com¬ 
munity in the east; but tempted by the stories of 
the rich land in the west, and the greater oppor¬ 
tunities of gaining a livelihood and accumulating 
wealth, they had packed their household goods 
and, with a team of horses and a wagon, had 
undertaken the long journey of six weeks or 
more into the wilderness. We shall not follow 
them through the difficulties of the long journey. 
But in the course of time we find them selecting 
a spot in an open space in the forest, not far from 
tlie banks of a stream, where the conditions of 


28 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the land give promise of making a new home safe, 
pleasant, and productive of good results. They 
are miles from any other human abode. There 
are no roads connecting them with civilization 
except the rough “trace” by which 
Its task. they found their way into the forest. 
They are face' to face with the great wilderness, 
whose conquest is for the present their chief 
task. 

The husband and father immediately begins to 
make a home. He takes his axe, and with the 

Providinit down trees from 

a shelter. forest and builds a log house. He 

becomes wood-cutter, carpenter, and builder. 
They make some simple furniture, and build a 
great fire-place of clay and sticks, with an oven. 
Fuel is found in abundance in the forest. 

For food they had to depend at first upon such 
provisions as were left from the journey, and upon 
game shot near at hand by the father. 
But the open space in the forest around 
the house was enlarged by clearing away the trees, 
the ground was plowed, and grain and vegetables 
were planted. In the course of time the grain 
ripened, was cut and threshed by hand, and 
ground into meal in a home-made stone mill. 
Tliey had brought with them, or had secured at 
settlements through which they had passed, one 
or two cows, some chickens, and some pigs. But 


THE FAMILY 


29 


Occupations of 
the father. 


for fresh meat they had to depend chielly upon 
game from the forest. Some necessities, like salt 
and powder, and a few luxuries, like coffee, had 
Exchange brought with great difficulty from 

of goods. nearest settlement forty miles away. 

In exchange for these things they gave their sur¬ 
plus farm products and a few furs that they se¬ 
cured from animals trapped during the winter. 
Money was almost never seen in this western 
country. 

The man built a forge. Under the stress of 
necessity, and aided by some little experience 
gained in the east, he was able to repair 
his tools, and even to make new ones, 
to shoe his horses, and to do many other things 
necessary on the farm. 

The supply of clothing soon had to be replen¬ 
ished. The skins of wild animals furnished some 
And of the materials from which the mother 

mother. niade clothing for the family. The 

father experimented in making moccasins and 
even shoes. They began the raising of sheep and 
cultivated flax. A spinning wheel and a hand 
loom were set up in the house, and coarse but 
serviceable clothing was made by the mother’s 
hand, aided by the daughter. Hats were 
woven from straw, or shaped from the skins of 
animals. 

Little was to be feared, in those early days. 


30 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


from thieves and marauders, although there 
Protection Were occasioiial rumors of threatened 

against violence 

and disease. Indian attacks. Against possible dan¬ 
gers of this kind the father was a watchful pro¬ 
tector. Other enemies more difficult to cope with 
were the attacks of sickness due to the presence 
of a swamp near at hand. The medicine chest, 
supplemented by roots and herbs from the forest, 
was a valuable part of the family equipment. 
The mother proved herself a sympathetic and re¬ 
sourceful physician and nurse. 8he also saw 
to it that the cause of disease was reduced 
as much as possible by keeping the premises 
clean. 

The education of the children had to be looked 
after. The son was taught the duties of the farm, 
the use of tools of all kinds, and be- 

Education. ^ 

came a skillful woodsman. The older 
girl learned the duties of the household, how to 
spin and weave, and many other things to fit her 
for the life she had to lead. The mother taught 
the little child to read, and instructed all in ideas 
of right living. She planted a little llower garden 
in the dooryard, and started vines to growing 
over the house. She used her taste to the utmost 
with the crude materials at hand in beautifying 
the children’s clothes for Sunday wear. They 
had no musical instrument: but the 

Art. 

parents could sing, and taught the 


THE FAMILY 


31 


Rellsrion. 


children to do so. This became a pleasant re¬ 
creation in tlie family life. 

The parents were religions people in accordance 
with their early training. The family Bible oc¬ 
cupied a prominent place in the house¬ 
hold, and from it every day the father 
read to the family group. There was no church 
for miles around. 

There was little companionship for the members 
of this family outside of the family group. But 
within the group there was the closest 

Social life. . _ , ^ ^ ^ , 

association lietween all the members. 
The children interested themselves in the work of 
the parents, and the parents entered sympatheti¬ 
cally into the pastimes of the children. They read 
and sang together. The children had their sports, 
in fields and woods, appropriate to the seasons. 
For want of other companions they made pets of 
all the domestic animals. An occasional traveler 
was welcomed in the home with the freest hos¬ 
pitality. 

System and order, were necessary in the family 
group. The occupations of the day were carried 
on in regular order; each had his special 
duties to perform at certain times. The 
youngest child looked to the older children for ad¬ 
vice and example, and the girls depended upon 
their brother for counsel and support. The children 
rendered obedience to their parents—to their 


Government. 


32 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


mother afFectionately and tenderly; to their father 
with more or less awe and fear. He was the rec¬ 
ognized head of the family. His word was law. 
And yet he constantly had the best interests of 
the family at heart, and was kind and thoughtful 
with all his sternness. 

Such was the life of the pioneer family. It was 
crude and imperfect. And yet you will see that 
all the kinds of desires that men have were pro¬ 
vided for more or less completely within the 
family itself. It looked after the protection of 
life and health, the production of wealth, the 
education, the religious training, and the social 
life of its members. 

In the course of time other families came into 
the neighborhood. Then an organization into a 
The family larger community began. The settlers 

relieved by the ^ j i j 

organization rendered aid to each other in the buildinc: 

of a larger ^ 

community. gf liouses aiid the gathering of crops. 
A water mill was built on the neighboring stream, 
to which all the farmers carried their grain to be 
ground. A blacksmith set up his shop and did 
the work that each farmer had formerly to do for 
himself. A store was established from which food, 
clothing, and tools might be bought. A school was 
organized to provide a better education than 
could be olfered in the home, and a church was 
built at the cross roads. A government was also 
organized. How these and other services are 


THE FAMILY 


33 


performed by the larger community will be con¬ 
sidered in later chapters. At this point the fol¬ 
lowing fact only is to be emphasized. 

No matter how good the doctors, the health of 
the people in any community depends more upon 
The responsi- the family than upon anything else. 

bllUy of Ihe 

family. J^o matter how emcient the schools, a 
great responsibility rests upon the family for the 
proper education of the children. No matter how 
many social organizations there may be in the 
community, the social life of the home is the most 
important of all and the most far-reaching in its 
results. No matter how excellent the government 
of a community may be, it can have little good 
result if the government in the home is lacking. 
The surest way to secure good government in the 
community is through careful government in the 
homes that make up the community. No matter 
how large the community, nor how completely it is organ- 
ized, the family remains one of the most important means 
to provide for the wants of the citizens. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Find out what you can about family life in the pioneer 
days of your own community. What kind of dwellings? 
Where did the food supply come from? How was health 
cared for? What were the occupations in the household? 
What was done to beautify the home? What were the 
social amusements ? 

2. Show to what extent the needs of a farmer’s family in 
your own neighborhood are satisfied by its own etibrts. 


34 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


3. Observe whether your own family is chiefly dependent 
upon itself for its needs, or depends upon arrangements siij)- 
plied by the community. 

4. Report things that are done in your own family to sat¬ 
isfy each of the desires mentioned in chapter IV. 

5. Compare the advantages of the average country family 
with those of tlie average city family, with respect to satisfying 
the desires of life. 

0. Study the way in which the average family governs 
itself. Mdiy is this government necessary ? 

7. AVas the settlement of your community made by indi¬ 
viduals or by families ? 

8. Are there in your community many peoi)le without 
homes, as explained in the first paragraph of this chapter ? 



CHAPTER VL 

SOME SERVICES RENDERED TO THE COMMUNITY 
BY THE FAMILY. 

No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good 
home life/’ 

The scattering of family relations throughout 
our country is one of the great influences that bind 
The bond of great nation together. The fact 

kinship. thousands of families had members 

in both North and South no doubt had some 
influence in preventing these two sections from 
coming to blows sooner tlian they did. One of 
the saddest results of the Civil War was that it 
divided families against themselves. The bond 
of kinship, in this case, was not strong enough to 
overcome the love for the principles for which the 
North and the South were contending. 

The family is a school of all the virtues ” that 
go to make good citizenship. It is a school in which 
The family a not oiily tlic children, but also the 

trainins: school , , • ^ o • i • i • 

for citizens. parents, are trained for citizenship. 


35 


36 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


It has been said by some one that if a man is a 
good husband, a good father, a good son, or a good 
brother, the probability is that he will also be a 
good, citizen in the community. And we must 
not forget the motliers, wives, daughters, and 
sisters. The quality of the citizenship of the 
women of a community is perhaps shown more in 
their family life than that of the men, because 
such a large part of their lives is spent in the 
family and the household, and also because their 
inlluence there is so great in molding the char¬ 
acter of the men. The Spartans greatly respected 
their women because to their training they largely 
gave the credit for the patriotism and bravery of 
the men. The Komans adored Cornelia, the 
mother of the Gracchi, because she had reared 
two such noble benefactors of the people. In the 
family are developed thoughtfulness for others, 
the spirit of self-sacrifice, loyalty to the group of 
which the individual is a member, respect for the 
opinions of those of long experience, obedience to 
the head of the family and to the rules which 
have been established for the welfare of all. 
The spirit of loyalty, of obedience, of patriotism, 
is nowhere so thoroughly cultivated as in a 
healthy family group. If these and other qual¬ 
ities of good citizenship are not cultivated there, 
the family is not in a healthy condition, and is 
not doing its full service to the community. 


SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 


37 


There is no kind of property that satisfies the 
desire for ownership so thoroughly as a home. 
The owning usually look forward with eager- 

of a home. j^ess to the time when they can own . 
their homes, and take great pride in that owner¬ 
ship when it is acqiiired. There are many fami¬ 
lies living in homes which they do not themselves 
own; they rent from others. But when that is 
the case there is lacking one of the strongest in¬ 
fluences that make the home life complete. The 
ownership of a home adds another bond of union 
between the members of the family through the 
common interest which it affords. A man has a 
greater interest in improving and beautifying a 
home that he owns than one that he rents from 
another. 

A family which owns its home will usually take 
a greater interest in the community in which it 
Creates interest lives than the family which owns no 
munity. lioiiie. It feels a sense of personal own¬ 
ership in a part of the community land. Besides, 
the value of a home will increase in proportion to 
the prosperity of the community as a whole. Its 
owner will therefore be inclined to do all he can 
to promote the welfare of the community for the 
sake of his family. A community that is made 
up largely of homes owned by their occupants is 
likely to be prosperous on this account, and its cit¬ 
izens are likely to be very loyal to it. This is 


THE COMMUNITY AND TPIE CITIZEN 


3S 


why the community mentioned in the first cliap- 
ter lias reason to boast that it is a city of 
homes. 

In large cities where many people are crowded 
together in a comparatively small area it is diffi- 
D«wr,.ohome for iiiaiiy fauiilies to get possession 

life In cities. ^ spot of groiiiitl siiitaltle for a lioine. 

The land, being in great demand, becomes very 
valuable, so that many families are unable to buy 
it, or, even to pay the necessary price for the 
use of it. The result is that such families are 
driven to make their homes in the least desirable 
localities in the community. For example, they 
may resort to the lowlands along a river flowing 
through the community, where the land is un¬ 
healthy and too much in danger of flooding for the 
homes of the well-to-do, or even for business 
blocks. There is thus great danger to health and 
property. In some river towns there may be found 
most wretched dwelling places in such localities. 
In large cities many families often crowd them¬ 
selves together in large buildings owned by men 
Avho can get l)etter returns by charging small 
rents to many families than they could by charg¬ 
ing larger rents to a few. These crowded dwelling 
places, which often do not deserve the name of 
homes, are called tenements, and the section of the 
city where the crowding is the worst and tlie build¬ 
ings the poorest constitutes what is known as the 


^SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 


39 


slums. These tenement homes involve all sorts of 
evils. Where so many families are crowded 
together in one building, and where many build¬ 
ings are crowded together without space between, 
there cannot be the privacy that is essential to 
good home life. Such conditions are also detrimen¬ 
tal to health. The sunlight never penetrates to 
the interior of many of these buildings. They are 
ill-ventilated and unsanitary. There is no room 
for play-grounds for the children. Among a crowd 
of people in such wretched dwellings there are 
always many ignorant, immoral, and vicious per¬ 
sons, whose influence upon others with whom they 
are constantly thrown is bad. Many idle and 
criminal persons find a safe hiding iDlace in the 
dark and crowded tenements of the slums. 

A family living in such conditions as we have 
described, not having a home in which it can take 
pride, and not enjoying to any great ex¬ 
tent the benefits of the community, will 
fhe^whole" take little or no interest in the welfare 
of the community, and will contribute 
nothing-to its well-being. On the other hand, the 
part of the community occupied by this class of 
dwellings is a constant burden and danger to the 
whole community. Fires are likely to start among 
the crowded and poorly constructed buildings, 
and to spread to other parts of the city. The 
unsanitary conditions invite epidemics of disease 


The burden 
of the 

worst homes 


40 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


which may not easily be restricted to the district 
where they originate. Disorder, vice, and crime 
abound there, requiring constant police supervi¬ 
sion which has to be paid for by the whole com¬ 
munity. In many ways the possessor of the good 
home in the better parts of the city has to bear 
the burden of, and help pay for, the existence 
of these poor homes. A very large part of thq. 
expense of government could be avoided if the 
poor homes of the city could be converted into 
pleasant homes, with plenty of room, light, and 
fresh air. Much that comes under the head of gov- 
Government evument is made necessary in order to 
and the home. place of what is lacking in the 

home life of the community. 

In many of our large cities the people are being 
awakened to the importance of better conditions 
among the residents of the tenement districts, 
and have begun a movement for their improve¬ 
ment. The old, unhealthy tenements are being 
removed and better ones built. More sunlight is 
being let in and better plumbing introduced. 
Open courts, or yards, are arranged for so that the 
people may get out of doors. Parks and play¬ 
grounds are being established in the vicinity of 
the crowded districts. 

It may be asked why these people of the tene¬ 
ments do not move out to the outskirts of the city 
where land is more plentiful and cheaper. 


SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 41 


This is in part due to the unfortunate fact 
Difficulties in that the residents of the tenements do 

the way 

of reform. not waiit anything better, because they 
do not realize their condition. It is necessary 
for the better informed people of the community 
to start the movement. Even when the people 
recognize the evils of their way of living, it is 
often difficult for them to break away from their 
old surroundings, and to form new habits of living. 
Besides, the great distances that have to be cov¬ 
ered in cities, making it inconvenient and expen¬ 
sive for a man to live too far away from his work, 
wliich is likely to be in the heart of the city, pre¬ 
vent the spreading out of the classes that live in 
the crowded tenements. The introduction of 
electric cars has done much to induce people to 
move out from the heart of the cities, and to seek 
homes in the suburbs where life is more health¬ 
ful, and where conditions are better for a more 
perfect home life. 

In concluding this chapter on the services ren¬ 
dered by the family it should be added that 
The protection they are recognized to be of such im- 
byiaw.*’”"’^ portance to the welfare of the com¬ 
munity that the State has thrown about the 
family many safe-guards in the form of laws for 
its protection. The relations between husband 
and wife, and between parents and children, 
as well as the property rights of the family. 


42 


THE COMIMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


are carefully protected iu most States, although 
in some States not so carefully as they should 
be. The family and tlie home must be sacredly 
guar^Jed, for ‘'no nation can he destroj/ed while it 
possesses a f/ood home life.” 

FOR INVESTIOATION. 

]. If you livo in a rural coniinunity, report on the num¬ 
ber of families in your neighborhood who own their farms, and 
the number who rent. 

2. If yon live in a town or city, report on the number of 
families on your street who own their homes, and the number 
who rent. 

3. Is there some section of your community where most of 
the people own their homes, and another section where most 
of the peoj^le rent 7 If so, do you notice any difterence in the 
general appearance of the two sections 7 Do you think that 
the difference, if any, is due in any part to the fact that some 
of the people own and some rent ? 

4. Where would you expect to hud the greater proportion of 
families owning their homes, in the country or in the city? 
AVhy? 

5. In the Census Report for 1900 (Vwl. II, l‘art II, 
page cciv) find the table showing the nund)er of families own¬ 
ing their homes in the different large cities of tlie United States. 
Notice your own city if it is reported. 

0. Debate the question: Home life in the country has 
greater advantages than home life in the city. 

7. Cbserve the character of the homes (dwellings, yards, 
gardens, etc.), as you pass from the center of your city to its 
outskirts. Is there any difference in their appearance? If so, 
why is it ? 

8. Is there a tenement district in your community? If so, 
locate it. Describe family life in this district. 

9. If you live in the country, is there any tendency for the 
families in your neighborhood to move to the city? If so, try 
to find the reasons for it. Wliat becomes of their farms when 
the families move away? 


SERVICES RENDERED BY THE FAMILY 


43 


10. If you live in the city, is there any tendency for families 
to move toward the outskirts of tlie city, or to the su])urbs ? If 
so, why? Is it chiefly the poorer peoi)le or the well-to-do? 
What happens to their old dwellings in the center of the 
city? 

11. Are fiats and apartment buildings being erected to any 
extent in your community? If so, try to find the causes. 
AVhat are some of the effects upon family life of dwelling in 
flats ? 

12. Show how good home life tends to decrease the need for 
government. 

FOR READING. 

Riis, Jacob: How the Other Half Lives. (Reports may he 
made upon selected topics from this hook, or selections may 
be read in class.) 


CHAPTER VIL 


THE .AIAKING OF A31EKICANS. 

Next to the ties of family relationship, those of 
common nationality and language are perhaps the 
The bond of strongest in binding people together 
nationality groups. Americans ill foreign cities 

usually drift together and often take lodgings in 
the same locality. So when foreigners come to 
tliis country, they tend to group themselves 
togetlier according to their nationality or lan¬ 
guage. This kind of grouping may assume great 
importance in a country like ours, where so many 
thousands of foreigners are pouring in upon us 
every year. America has always been a land of 
oiiportunity, and millions of people have come 
here from foreign lands for the purpose of lietter- 
ing their condition. Some have come, like the 
Theforeijrn Pilgrims of Plyiuoutli, for religious 

element In ^he 

United States, freedom. Others have come, like the 
founders of Massachusetts Bay Colony, for political 
freedoin, And many more have come merely to 


44 


THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 


45 


better tlieir material welfare. Thousands are 
coming every year because here work is plentiful, 
and the opportunity is great to earn, not merely a 
living, but land and a home with comforts that were 
impossible in their native lands. In the ten 
years from 1892 to 1902 nearly 4,000,000 foreigners 
settled in the United States, and in 1905 alone 
1,000,000 arrived. Among them are representa¬ 
tives of every country of Europe and many from 
other lands. 

The tendency of these incoming foreigners is to 
drift to sections of the country where there is 

Distribution already a large number of their coun- 
of foreitrners. There are sections in some of 

the States of the northwest where almost the 
entire population is Swedish. In other States we 
frequently find large farming communities of 
Scotch. In some of the coal mining regions the 
population is largely Slavic. Manufacturing 
towns often have large populations of some one 
nationality, like the Belgian glass-workers in 
some parts of Indiana. In cities, where many 
foreigners settle, they usually arrange themselves 
by nationality in different sections of the city. 
Thus we find in New York a section occupied 
almost exclusively by Italians, another by Chi¬ 
nese, another by Greeks, and so on. 

These different nationalities not only tend to 
live in groups, but they also think and act in 


40 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


groups. It is very common to hear, at election 
time, of the '‘German vote”, and the "Irish 
vote”. It is true also in religious matters. The 
Jews are distinguished from all others by their 
religious observances. Many of the Germans, like 
many of the Swedes, are Lutherans. The Irish 
are usually Catholics. There are also differences 


ill ideas of thrift and industry, in their 
forms of architecture, in their home 
life and in many other ways. One sec- 


Foreig:n s:roups 
within the 
nation tend to 
act as units. 


tion of a city may be thrifty and law-abiding 
because of the habits of the nationality occupying 
it, while another section will be unsightly and 
disorderly. Some observers are very much con¬ 
cerned at the present time, because of the in¬ 
creasing immigration into the United States from 
the southern and eastern countries of Europe, 
where the social and political ideas of the people 
are very different from those of the United States. 
The differences between nationalities may some¬ 
times go so far as to become real hostility. Thus, 
in Kussia at the present time the Jews are being 
severely persecuted by other inhabitants. In 
Austria-Hungary there are many races and lan¬ 
guages side by side, bound together under one 
government, but so different in customs, in 
religion, in habits of thought, that they not only 
do not blend easily into a single nation, but are 
constantly quarreling among themselves. 


THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 


47 


There might also be great danger to the peace 
and unity of the United States through the 
The United States immigration of so many foreigners of 

a nation of 

foreigners. different nationality, if they actually 
remained for any length of time as distinct 
national groups within our country. But this is 
not usually the case. Most of these immigrants 
begin a process of transformation from Germans, 
Irish, Poles, etc., into Americans, almost as soon 
as they have landed. We are a nation of foreign¬ 
ers. Most of us do not have to go back very far 
until we come across some of our ancestors just 
immigrating into this country from some foreign 
land. And so the hundreds of thousands who are 
coming to our shores this year will, in the course 
of a few years, be proud of the name of American, 
and their children, born here, will not be distin¬ 
guishable from the great mass of Americans. 
This breaking down of the differences between 
the nationalities within our country is due to the 
growth of common interests among all who live 
here. All came here for greater, freedom of 
religion, of political belief, of labor. Our gov¬ 
ernment allows to all equal opportunities and 
equal rights. Only in the case of the Chinese has 
it prohibited the immigration of a nationality; 
and in this case it is because the Chinese remain 
foreigners, no matter how long they live here. 
They fail to become Americanized, fail to adopt 


48 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the interests and the customs of this country as 
their own. 

The Constitution of the United States says: 
‘’‘’All persons born or naturalized in the United 

States, and subject to the jurisdiction 

Naturalization. 

tliereof, are citizens of the United 
States and of the State wherein they reside.” 
(Amendment XIV). In order to become legal 
citizens of tlie United States, therefore, per¬ 
sons born in foreign countries must go through 
the process of naturalization. They must have 
lived in the United States at least five years, 
and in the State one year, and must have de¬ 
clared their intention of becoming citizens be¬ 
fore a court at least two years before their 
citizenship papers are given to them. They 
must also prove good character and declare 
their intention of observing the principles of 
the Constitution. They then have all the rights 
of native-born citizens, except that they may 
not hold the office of President or Vice-Presi¬ 
dent. The government has the right to deny 
citizenship to those who do not prove them¬ 
selves of the right kind, and even to send such 
persons back to the land from which they came. 
Unfortunately the government has become lax 
in the enforcement of this law. Not sufficient 
care is taken to prove the good character of 
those who apply for citizenship, nor to ascertain 


THE .MAKING OF A:\rERICANS 


40 


their motives. Just before elections thousands of 
foreigners are hastily made citizens in order to 
secure their votes for one party or the other. 

Of the 75,000,000 population of the United 
States in ]900, there were about 5,000,000 for- 
Aliens eigners who were not naturalized. Such 

persons are known as aliens. Aliens en¬ 
joy almost, although not quite, all the privileges 
of citizens. They are entitled to full protection 
of their lives and property by our government; 
they may move freely al)out the country and 
engage in business; thej" are entitled to all the 
privileges of the State courts, and to some of 
those of the national courts; they have freedom 
of religious belief. There are some restrictions 
against their holding real estate; but many 
States allow them to do so, and by the Home¬ 
stead Act (see p. 55) Congress has given millions 
of acres to aliens. In some States aliens may 
even vote for State and national officers after 
having simply declared their intention of be¬ 
coming citizens before a court. This is a privi¬ 
lege that many real citizens do not enjoy, as 
in the case of women and of boys under twen¬ 
ty-one years of age. 

In the development of our great country since 
its establishment a little over a hundred years 
ago, with its vast areas of land to be reduced to 
the use of man, and with its abundant resources 


50 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


of all kinds, it has always been considered desira¬ 
ble that foreigners should come to our land to 
make it their home. But it. is plain that if they 
are to be valuable members of our community, 
they must have or acquire full sympathy witli 
It is necessary oiii' Auiericau ideas. They must' be- 

that the foreiitn- i i i i \ 

ersbetrans- coiue blended With the mass ot Ameri- 

formed into 

Americans. ^ caiis aiiioiig wlioiii they live, and become 
Americans themselves, not merely in dress ami 
language, but especially in their spirit and princi¬ 
ples. Down to the present time this blending 
has gone on easily and rapidly, because the great 
mass of the population has always been native 
born. In the one great example of failure to 
blend witli our people, the Chinese, our govern¬ 
ment stepped in and forbade their immigration. 
But with the increasing tide of immigration from 
foreign lands the problem becomes more serious, 
and calls for greater caution on the part of gov¬ 
ernment as to what foreigners shall lie admitted 
and what excluded. Most of those who come will 
undoubtedly make excellent citizens. But there 
are also many who will contribute nothing to our 
welfare, and some who’ even antagonize the law 
and order which are so necessary in a com¬ 
munity. 

It. is necessary that every means be adopted to 
instruct those who come to our land in the ideals 
of American citizenship, and to make of them 


THE MAKINCt of AMERICANS 


51 


not merely partakers of our liberty, but coiitrib- 
The influence utors to our community welfare. The 

0^ ‘•’e 1 1 r. . • 

public school, school performs an important service 
in this direction. It not only instructs tlie 
children of the foreigners in the English 
language, American history and other subjects 
that acquaint them with American ways, but 
by bringing them in constant association with 
the American children of all classes, it hastens 
the adoption of American ways, and they are rap¬ 
idly transformed into Americans themselves. 

The very nature of the American government 
tends to • destroy all dilferences of 

.government, ^ jg fundamental idea 

of our government that, no matter how dilferent 
the people may be, there are certain political 
rights and privileges held by all in common, 
which it is the business of the government to 
protect. Our government is a strong bond of 
union, not because it holds us together in a 
forced union, but because we all have an equal 
interest and share in it. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Make a list of the different nationalities to be found in 
yonr community. 

2. Do you know any farminf? community in your neigh¬ 
borhood that is composed of some foreign nationality?. 

3. If possible, show on a map of your city how the differ¬ 
ent nationalities an* distributed. 

4. tVhat are the characteristics of the different sections of 


52 


THE co:mmunity and tpie citizen 


the city occupied i)y the different nationalities (character of 
houses, condition of streets, kinds oflmsiness, social customs, 
etc.)':* 

5. Do any of the nationalities in yonr community tend 
to act as units (i. e., the Irish by themselves, the Italians by 
themselves, etc.) in polities, or relij^ious matters, or 
business ? 

6. Do any of the nationalities in your community tend 
more than others to remain distinct from the l)ody 
of citizens? If so, what are they, and why is it? 

7. Are there any communities in your State composed 
largely of some one foreign nationality? Where are they? 
Why did these foreigners settle there? What are their 
occupations? 

8. (rather some facts regarding the number of immi¬ 
grants to this country, their nationalities, their character 
and conditions, 'their distribution through the country and 
in cities. 

9. Look up the naturalization laws of the United States. 

10. What restrictions upon immigration are imposed by 
our government? 

11. Debate the question: Foreign immigration should be 
further restricted by tlie United States. 

12. Debate the (piestion: The Chinese shouM be allowed 
free admission to the United States as in the case of other 
nationalities. 

13. To wliom shonld an alien apply for naturalization? 

14. Find out how careful the government is in determining 
the character of foreigners who a})ply for naturalization (see 
Smith, Emigration and Immigration, {)}>. 8.3-85). 

15. Debate the (luestion: The right to vote should 
be denied to all persons who are not full citizens of the 
United States. 

16. Let the pupils hand in a statement of the nationality of ’ 
their parents, grand-parents, and great-grandparents, and 
tabulate the results for the whole class on the black¬ 
board. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


HOW THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PEOPLE AND 
THE LAND ARE MADE PERMANENT 
AND DEFINITE. 

One of the things that distinguish civilized men 
from savages is the fixed and permanent charac¬ 
ter of their communities. Travellers 

civilized men 

distiniruished through the unbroken wilderness of 

from savages ^ 

nLce^Mhefr America before its settlement by white 

communities. „ ,, . . . 

men frequently report passing by 
deserted villages. The hunting life of the Indian 
made a fixed dwelling place undesirable if not 
impossible. Their organization into clans and 
tribes made it of little importance whether they 
lived in one place or another. In our civilized 
communities, on the other hand, we are organized 
into wards, and townships, and counties, and 
States; and our rights and duties are largely 
determined by where we live. In the development 
of mankind, every step that united them more 
closely with the land was a step in the direction 
of civilization, as when men passed from the life 


53 


54 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


of the Imnter to that of the lierdsinan, or from 
the life of the herdsman to that of the farmer.- 
When the commimity described in the lirst 
chapter made its settlement it did not pitch its 

Permanence and tcilts witll the idea of SOOll movillg Oil. 
definiteness ^ ^ j j i 

aimed at It made arrangements to become a 

in founding 

a community, permanent community with definite bound¬ 
aries and divisions of land. It planned to buy a 
township of land from the government at $1.25 per 
acre. Three sections of land were reserved for the 
site of the village and for the college. The col¬ 
lege land was fenced in, and the village laid out into 
lots to be sold to those who wished to build homes 
and places of business. Lots were reserved for the 
church, an academy, and a common school, upon 
which permanent buildings were to be erected. Out¬ 
side of the village site the land was sold for farm¬ 
ing in (piarter sections and half sections. These farms 
were fenced in and improved by cultivation and by 
the erection of permauent buildings. The more 
the settlers improved the land uxion which they 
lived, and the more they invested in their homes, 
the more likelihood was there that the settlement 
would be permanent. With the growth of busi¬ 
ness, the building of business blocks, the estab¬ 
lishment of factories, the development of the 
resources of the land, and the building of rail¬ 
roads, the future of the community became 
assured. A community grows and prospers in pro- 


RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE ANT) T.AND 


55 


portion as the people and the land unite definitely and 
permanently. 

In tlie course of its history our nation has come 
into possession of vast territories that would be 
The settlement useless if they Were not occupied by 

of the national 

domain. a population that would develop their 
resources. The occupation of this land has 
been rapidly accomplished by our government 
by appealing to men’s desire to own homes. 
To the men who fought in the Revolutionary 
War the government gave about 10,000,000 
acres of land for settlement, and to the veterans 
of the Mexican War about 00,000,000 acres, or 
.about as much as is comprised in the two 
States of Indiana and Illinois. In 1802 Con¬ 
gress passed the Homestead Act, which provided 
that any head of a family might receive a 
quarter section of land (100 a(*res) if he would 
live upon it for five years and pay a small fee. 
Under this law about 200,000,000 acres have been 
disposed of for settlement, or more than all the 
land included in the Northwest Territory (Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, and a parf 
of Minnesota). Besides this, large areas have 
been sold to individuals at the low price of 
from $1.25 to $2.50 per acre (see paragraph 2 of 
this chapter). Not only farming land, but land 
rich in timber and minerals has thus been 
])rought into production. More than 150,000,000 


56 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZPIN 


acres have been given by the government to 
some of the great western railroads, which have 
performed a valuable service in opening up and 
developing the new lands. The nation has thus 
been enriched, while at the same time individuals, 
families, and business enterprises have been ben¬ 
efited. In 1900 there were in the United States, 
not including Alaska and our new island 
possessions, 588,490,440 acres of land still open 
to settlement. 

The national government has done more than 
this to make the settlement of the western lands 
The govern ment Permanent and definite. After the Rev- 
survey. olutioiiary War settlers began to enter 
the Ohio valley and claim land for farms. Each 
settler laid out his own farm with little regard 
to the claims of others. The result was great 
confusion and many disputes over boundary lines. 
The government finally put an end to this state 
of affairs by making a survey of the whole region 
and establishing lines by means of which land 
could be located with certainty. The accompany¬ 
ing diagrams will help you to understand the plan. 
The survey was begun by establishing certain 
north and south lines called piincipal meridians. 
There are now twenty-four of these, the eastern¬ 
most being the line that separates Ohio from 
Indiana. The western-most runs through Oregon. 
At intervals of six miles east and west of the 


RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 


o/ 


principal meridians otlier meridians were estab¬ 
lished called range lines. A parallel of latitude 
across this country was then chosen as a base line, 
and at intervals of six miles north and south of 
the base line other lines were established called 


I. 






4 



Y 


X 


IAN 

3 






1 

RID 

2 

r ‘ 

LI 

j 





1 ^ 
BASE ^ 

NE 

I 

i 


4 

3 

2 

1 < 

1 

1 

2 ! 

1 

1 

3 

4 

1 

1 

! 

1 

! 

CIP 

2 

z 





1 

RIN 

3 

1 

i 

! 




W 


1 ^ 

4 





X ie township 3 north in range 3 west 
Y is “ 4 “ “ ‘ 4 east 

Z “ “ 2 south “ “ 2 

W “ “ 4 “ ■' 3 west. 

township lines. Thus the cxjuntry was divided into 
townships, six miles square. These townships were 
then numbered east or west from a principal meri¬ 
dian, and north or south from the base line. Each 






































THE (O^r.MUNlTY AND THE CITIZEN 


r)8 


towiislii]) was divided into sections one mile sciuare, 
and thus containing (>40 acres. These sections 

11 . 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

7 

a 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 


A Township Showing Sections. (36 sq. mi.) 
Suppose this to be towhship X in diagram 1. 
Then the .“et tion named a is section 8 of 
towns!iip 3 norih in range 3 west. 


40 

acres 

N E Vi 

N W Vi 

N 

N E Vi 

S M> N W Vi 

80 acres 


S E 1/4 

N E 1/4 
40 acres 

160 acres 

160 acres 

S W Vi 

S E Vi 


III. 

A Section (C40 acres.) 

Suppose this to be section a of 
diagram II. 

Then the 160 acres in the lower 
right liand corner is the south¬ 
east Vi of section 8 of township 
3 north in range 3 west. The 40 
acres marked NE Vi NW Vi is the 
northeast Vi of the northwest 14 
of section 8 of township 3 north 
in range 3 west. 


were numbered in each township from 1 to 
Each section is also divided into halves and quar¬ 
ters. The farm of every settler may thus be located 













































RELATIONS BETAVEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 


59 


exactly by means of these lines, and his })ounda- 
ries are recorded in the olfices of the government 
so that there can be no possible dispute over them. 
In cities the land is further subdivided into lots^ 
which are also numbered and recorded. Definite¬ 
ness and permanence are thus secured. 

It has been stated that a great deal of the land 
of the nation remains untaken by individuals. 
„ ^ This is called public land. It is some- 

PubHc land. 

times spoken of as government land, but 
it should be remembered that the government is 
merely the agent of the people, employed to look 
after their interests in the land. Much of this 
unsettled public domain will undoubtedly be dis¬ 
posed of to settlers. Some of it, in its present 
condition, is useless because of its desert charac¬ 
ter. Much of this may be reclaimed by artificial 
irrigation. A great deal of desert land has already 
been reclaimed in the far west by private enter¬ 
prise, and the national government itself is now 
establishing a system of irrigation. For this pur¬ 
pose a number of favorable sites for reservoirs for 
irrigation purposes have been chosen by the gov- 
vernment, and will remain the property of the 
nation. The government has set aside a number 
of forest reservations, largely for the purpose of 
protecting the sources of the great rivers that rise 
in them. The Yellowstone, the Yosemite, and 
other great national parks have been set apart by 


()0 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the government to preserve the beautiful scenery 
for the pleasure of the people. The govern¬ 
ment has also withheld from settlement large 
tracts of land, chiefly in the west, as Indian 
Reservations. 

When new States are created out of the national 
lands in the west, the unsettled lands within their 
boundaries do not pass into the posses- 

State lands. 

sion of the States but are still owned 
by the nation. The national government has, 
however, given large tracts to the States 
for various purposes. For example, it was provided 
that one section, and later two sections, in each 
township of these new States should be the prop¬ 
erty of the State to be used for school purposes 
(see chapter XIII). Other lands have been given 
to many of the States for other purposes, as for 
the building of roads and canals. 

The national. State, and local governments own 
a great deal of land for many other purposes, as 
for school houses, government oflice buildings, 
military posts, etc. Highways are public prop¬ 
erty (see chapter XII). In many cities there are 
public markets, usually there are public parks, 
and sometimes public playgrounds. 

The right of the citizen to be secure in his 
property is held very sacred in the United States. 
Government But wlieii the interests of the individual 

control of 

private property, conflict With tliose of the Community, 


RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 


61 


the former have to yield. The government may 
control the way in which a citizen uses his land. 
It may say to him, You must keep your premises 
clean, so as not to endanger the health of the 
community ” (chapter IX). Or, “ Within certain 
limits you shall not erect wooden buildings, 
because of the danger to the community from 
fire” (chapter X). It may prohibit some kinds of 
business in certain parts of the community if 
they would interfere with safety or comfort, as 
in the case of saloons. 

If the interests of the whole community demand 
it, the government may even take away the land 
The right of ^ citizen and devote it to public uses, 

eminent domain. right of the government is called 

the right of eminent domain. For example, if the 
national government wishes to construct a post- 
office it may, if necessary, condemn the property of 
private citizens, remove all buildings, and pro¬ 
ceed to erect the postoffice. The State has the 
same right and grants its use to cities, counties, 
and townships. Thus, if the interests of the com¬ 
munity call for a new street, it may be constructed 
right through the property of individuals, even to 
the extent of removing buildings. So, also, a 
road may be built through a man’s farm by the 
county government. The State also grants the 
exercise of the right of eminent domain to rail¬ 
roads, because of the important public service 


G2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

rendered by them. But in exercising the right of 
eminent domain a very important condition must 
be complied with : the private eitizen must he paid a 
just amount for his property. The Constitution of 
the United States provides, ‘'nor shall private 
property be taken for public use without just 
compensation” (amendment V, last clause). If 
a dispute arises between the citizen and the gov¬ 
ernment (or tlie railroad) over the price of the 
land, it may be brought before a court for settle¬ 
ment. 

There are certain conditions under which the 
government may take private property without the 
consent of the owner, and without paying for it. 
This is an exercise of the poliee power of the 
government, and may be sufficiently illustrated 
by referring again to San Francisco at the time 
of the fire which followed the earthquake. In 
order to check the spread of the fire, the soldiers 
blew up with dynamite a great many buildings in 
the path of the fire, but which had not been 
previously injured. This was a destruction of 
individual property for the good of the com¬ 
munity. 

Communities may also grant the use of their 
highways to private corporations that render 
TheKrantinjtof important public service, such as street 
franchises. railways, telephone and telegraph com¬ 
panies, water and gas companies, etc. The right 


RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 03 

to use public property in this way is called a 
franchise. In return for the privileges of a fran- 
cliise the corporation must render definite services 
to the community, such as supplying light of a 
good quality, water tliat is pure, street car ser¬ 
vice that can be depended upon. The government 
in granting the franchise is acting solely for the 
community, and should look carefully after the 
community’s welfare. Unfortunately the officers of 
the government do not always do their duty in tliis 
matter, and franchises are granted that benefit a 
few individuals without securing due benefit to 
the community (see chapter XI). 

It was said in the first paragraph of this chapter 
that our rights and duties as citizens are determined 
Political largely by where we live. Citizens 

divisions of . 

the land. of the United States have certain 
political rights, such as voting and liolding office, 
and certain duties, such as paying taxes. But 
these rights may be enjoyed, and the duties per¬ 
formed, only within certain districts which tlie 
government creates for this purpose. Were it mot 
for this, unutterable confusion would exist. Thus, 
a citizen has certain political rights within the 
State where he lives that he does not have in any 
other State. The boundaries of the States are 
established by the national government (except 
the original thirteen States of the Union, whose 
boundaries Avere fixed before the national govern- 


64 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


ment was organized), but may not be changed 
afterwards without the consent of the State. 
The States organize themselves into counties and 
townships (in the west this politieal township 
usually corresponds with the township surveyed 
by the national government). Villages and cities 
are granted definite boundaries by the State 
government, and organize themselves into wards 
and precincts. There are also congressional, ju¬ 
dicial, and revenue districts, whose boundaries 
are fixed by the governments of the States or 
nation. Residence in any of these districts 
carries with it duties and rights that the citi¬ 
zen does not have elsewhere. 

FOE INVESTIGxlTION. 

1. What were the original boundaries of the town or city in 
which you live ? How was the original town laid out ? 

2. How many times have your city limits been extended ? 
Whence did the city get its authority to add to its ter¬ 
ritory? 

8. Make a map showing the original city limits, and the 
later extended limits. 

4. Report on the coming of the first important factories to 
your community, and show how they gave permanence to the 
community. 

o. Report on the coming of the first railroad to your com- 
munity, and its effect upon the permanence and growth of the 
community. 

6. Do you know any community that is without a railroad ? 
Compare with your own community. 

7. Are there any business associations in your community 
that aid citizens in obtaining homes of their own, such as 


RELATIONS liETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 


65 


P>uil(lin^ and Loan Associations, etc.? If so, report how they 
operate. 

8. Report liow a piece of land in yonr connnnnity is laid off 
into lots. 

9. What are the townships in your county? 

10. Find out in what range your townshij) is with reference 
to the nearest principal meridian. Also, what is the number of 
your township from the base line? 

11. If you live on a farm, locate it with reference to 
section, township, base line, and principal meridian. 

12. If you live in a city, locate the lot in which you dwell 
by lot nund)er, section, township, etc. ^Nlake a map showing 
the location. 

R>. Report more fully upon the Llomestead Law. 

14. Do you know any instance of the exercise of the right of 
eminent domain in your community? 

15. What are some of the ways in which the government 
regulates the use of the land you live in? 

16. Make a list of the land owned l)y the government in 
your community, and state whether it belongs to nation, State, 
or local community. 

17. Describe the ward divisions of your city. How were 
they laid out? How may their boundaries he changed? 

18. Are there any forest reservations in your State? If so, 
what is their purpose? Locate them. 

19. Report on what has been <Ione, by the government or 
otherwise, in the reclaiming of desert lands in the west by 
irrigation. 

20. Has any land been given to your State by the national 
government for puri)Oses other than schools? If so, what? 

(A map of the United States, i)uhlished by tlie Land Office, 
and which can he secured for §1.25, shows the forest and 
Indian reservations of the United States.) 


CHAPTER IX. 


HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO 
SATISFY HIS DESIRE FOR HEALTH. 

Communities have developed througli the 
efforts of men to satisfy their desires of life, for 
Communities these desires can be satisfied better in 
citizens to Communities than by individuals alone. 

satisfy all 

their desires. Insofar as the community provides for 
the wants of its citizens, it is a good community; 
while if it fails to provide for any of them, it is 
an imperfect community, and the lives of the 
citizens will be imperfect. The desire for health 
is the first to be provided for. 

In the conditions in which the pioneer family 
lived, life and health were almost wholly depend- 
The protection ent upon the efforts and the arrange- 

of health In the 

pioneer family, nieiits of the family itself. Shelter was 
afforded by the family dwelling. The body was 
protected by clothing made within the home 
from materials obtained in the surrounding forest 
or raised on the farm. Nearly all the food was 


THE PROTFX^TION OF HEALTH 


07 


raised on tlie farm, or secured by hunting. In 
case of sickness, home nursing and home remedies 
administered by the mother restored to health. 
Tlie wliole responsibility for clean and wholesome 
premises rested upon the members of the family. 
In case of accident it was the mother who bound 
up the wounds. If wild beasts or savage men 
threatened the home, it was the father who 
defended it. Vigorous exercise and fresh air, 
so necessary to keep the body well and strong 
and the mind keen, were found in abundance in 
the ordinary duties of the pioneer life on the farm 
and in the forest. 

With the clearing of the wilderness and the 
advance of civilization, conditions of life have 
changed, and the preservation of life and health 
has become much less simple and direct. Not 
that the responsibility of the family has decreased 
in any way; it has rather become greater. But 
the health of the individual has become depend¬ 
ent upon 'so many things outside of the family 
that the latter alone cannot provide fully for it. 

With the growth of the community, while 
many of the dangers peculiar to the wilderness 
have disappeared, new dangers to life and health 
have arisen to beset the citizen. Streams that 
were originally clear and sparkling, supplying 
fish for food and water for drinking, when pass¬ 
ing through the crowded settlements of men 


68 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


New dangers 
to life and 
health arise 
with the 
growth of 
communities. 


become impure with the refuse of factories and 
the sewage of dwellings. They then pour forth 
vile odors and disease germs. The drinking water 
from wells and streams becomes unsafe. With the 
increase of population the danger of epidemics of 
disease increases. Impure and unwholesome 
food is sold in the markets and over the counters of 
the stores. Wild beasts and savages are no longer 
to be feared; but unprotected railroad cross¬ 
ings, rapidly running trolley cars and 
automobiles, poorly constructed build¬ 
ings and elevators, burning buildings, 
and robbers and thugs, constantly 
threaten the life of the unwary. And in the 
crowded cities a vigorous outdoor life is wanting. 
Men, women, and children grow pale and sickly 
because of indoor occupations, lack of exer¬ 
cise, and the breathing of air vitiated by smoke 
and foul odors. In addition to all this, city life is 
accompanied by temptation to vicious habits that 
are unknown in the more primitive conditions of 
pioneer life. Whatever disadvantages the coun¬ 
try boy or girl may suffer from an isolated life, 
their chances for a sound and healthy body, a 
most priceless possession, are greatly increased. 

With the coming of new settlers into the 
neighborhood of the pioneer there springs up 
The community amoiig the families a mutual helnful- 

organlzes to ^ 

protect health, ness. Ill case of sickness in one of the 


THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 


69 


households, the neighbors are prompt in offers of 
assistance—suggestions in regard to the proper 
remedies, offers to sit up nights with the patient. 
In case of attack from wild beasts or savages, the 
men unite in hunting the enemy down. 

But special agencies of a more systematic kind 
soon appear to serve the little community. For 
example, a physician arrives in the settlement, 
and his experience and training relieve the fami¬ 
lies of a part of their responsibility for the healtli 
of the people. Certain individuals prove them¬ 
selves especially skillful in the care of the sick 
and become known as the regular nurses of the 
community. 

But as the community grows and the people 
become busier with their various callings it 
becomes necessary to arrange for a more 

Government is 

overthSSth' systematic protection, and to center the 
arrangements, responsibility foi’ it Upon somo desig¬ 
nated person or group of persons. With the 
organization of a government for the community, it 
is given supervision over the health arrangements. 
In the community of which we have spoken 
several times (chapter I), the trustees of the 
town were assigned the duty of '‘securing the 
general health of the inhabitants,” and of “keep¬ 
ing in repair the drains and sewers.” When the 
stream which ran through the town became 
clogged with sawdust from the mill, the trustees 


70 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


appointed a committee of one to investigate. 
He reported and pledged himself, “should mild¬ 
ness and good nature fail, to lend a hand in apply¬ 
ing then'strong arm of the law.” Again, a little 
later, information was received of the approach of 
a band of Swedish immigrants afflicted with chol¬ 
era. Aid was sent to them, but they were warned 
not to enter the town, and an appeal was pul)- 
lished in the little newspaper urging all to “use 
every means to avert the impending danger. Let 
your premises be thoroughly cleansed and puri¬ 
fied. Remove everything that will tend to invite 
disease.” A hoard of health was soon created, and 
a commissioner of health appointed who was to have 
general supervision over the sanitation of the town 
and report to the board for action. A health 
policeman was also appointed. These officers in¬ 
spected drains, sinks, and cellars in private 
houses, and fruits and meats in the markets. One 
of the physicians of the community was appointed 
city physician to care for the sick who had no means 
of their own, receiving his pay from the commun¬ 
ity as a whole. 

The separate and inadequate drains of indi¬ 
vidual householders soon give way to an extensive 
Sewersand systeiii of sewers underlying all the 
streets, connections being made with 
every lot and house in the city. Here the natural 
slope and drainage of the community become very 


THE PROTP]CTION OF HEALTH 


71 


important, because they determine the ease and 
effectiveness with which the sewage can be car¬ 
ried away. Sometimes it is drained into a stream 
that runs through or near the city. This is dan¬ 
gerous to health unless the stream is converted 
into a closed sewer, or is kept purified in some 
way. In Chicago the sewage is drained into the 
Chicago River, and thus, until recently, was car¬ 
ried into Lake Michigan, whence the people draw 
their supply of drinking water. The result was a 
great deal of sickness like typhoid fever. The 
river was also a menace to health, because it was 
a foul-smelling and disease-breeding stream. Chem¬ 
ists were employed by the city to examine the 
drinking water and report its condition in the news¬ 
papers each day. The more careful families always 
boiled every bit of water used for drinking in the 
household. But in spite of these precautions 
thousands of people were made sick, and many 
died, each year as a result of drinking this bad 
water. This bad situation was greatly improved 
by the construction of a drainage canal connecting 
the Chicago River with the Illinois and Mississippi 
Rivers, so that the waters of the lake now flow 
through the Chicago River. This effectually dis¬ 
poses of the sewage of the city, keeps the river 
flushed and pure, and prevents the lake from be¬ 
ing contaminated. A few years ago an epidemic 
of typhoid fever suddenly broke out in New 


72 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Haven, resulting in the death of a great many peo¬ 
ple, and the sickness of many more. After a care¬ 
ful inspection of the reservoir from which the city 
drew its supply of drinking water, and of all the 
streams that howed into this reservoir, it was 
finally discovered that a family living near the 
reservoir, in which a case of typhoid fever had 
occurred some time before, had not been careful in 
the disposal of their sewage. The ground about 
their home had become infected with the disease, 
and heavy rains had carried the disease germs 
into the reservoir. This case illustrates the im¬ 
portant connection between the drainage, the 
water .supply, and the health of a community. 
And it also illustrates the heavy responsibility’of 
the individual citizen and family for the welfare 
of the whole community. The larger the com¬ 
munity, the greater is the problem of health. 
Many cities have established crematories, in 
which much of the refuse of the community is 
burned. This is the most effectual way of dispos¬ 
ing of it so far as it can be applied. 

The most important precaution against disease 
is cleanliness. This is a matter that must largely 
Cleanliness looked after in the home. If each 

family would take proper precautions 
to secure cleanliness and plenty of fresh air, not 
only would the problem of disease in the com¬ 
munity be largely solved, but the expense of gov- 


THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 


73 


erniiient would be greatly decreased. Ignorance 
of the causes and nieai\s of prevention of disease 
is the chief cause of the failure of families to do 
their duty in this matter. Education of the chil¬ 
dren in the schools, and of the people generally 
through the newspapers and otherwise, in regard 
to these matters will do much toward improving 
the conditions of liealth in our communities. But 
because of the failure of tlie family and of the 
individual citizen to do their part, the community, 
tlirough its government, enacts ordinances tocom- 
l)el families to keep tlieir premises clean, and 
their drains in proper condition. Ordinances 
usually exist to prevent the filthy and most dan¬ 
gerous practice of spitting in public places, as on 
tlie sidewalk, in street cars, and in public 
buildings. This practice is one of the most effect¬ 
ive means of spreading some of our most terri¬ 
ble diseases, such as tuberculosis or consumption, 
and the ordinances to prevent it are among the 
most important enacted by our city govern¬ 
ments. But, unfortunately, they are also among 
those most seldom enforced and most often vio¬ 
lated. Here is one of the cases where constant 
and concerted action on the part of all cleanly 
and well-informed persons is necessary to secure 
the enforcement of the law. 

Every city has its street cleaning deparment, 
which does not always do its work as well as it 


74 


THE c()m:^iunitv and the citizen 


should. Ill large cities it consists of an army of 
men, with horses and wagons and suitable macliin- 
street cieaninsc eiy for Sweeping and cleansing the streets 
inspfctioji. and alleys. These men are under the 
supervision of a Board or a Commissioner, acting 
under the authority of the government (see chap¬ 
ter XVIIT). There are also smoke inspectors, 
whose work is important in keeping the atmos- 
])here pure. If the stoking of the furnaces in 
factories and large buildings is done proyierly, the 
smoke nuisance can be greatly lessened. And 
there are smoke consumers which aid in the con¬ 
sumption of the smoke that is otherwise poured 
out of the chimneys over the community. They 
result in a saving of fuel, and are thus an advan¬ 
tage to the users of fuel; but the expense and 
tronlile of putting them in prevents many from 
doing so. The conimnnity should insist, however, 
that the smoke nuisance be removed as far as 
possible, not only because it is detrimental to 
health, but also because it mars the beauty of the 
city. 

Cities also have hospitals, some of which are 
supported by private organizations, such as 
churches, but some of Avhich are supported at 
public expense, and are under the charge of 

physicians, surgeons, and nurses paid 

Hospitals. 

out of the public treasury. Precautions 
are taken against the spread of contagious dis- 


THE PROTECTION OF I'lEALTII 


lb 


eases. The government has the right to declare a 
quarantine against a home, or even against a whole 
section of the city; which means that, in case of 
the existence of a contagious disease, the occu¬ 
pants of the dwelling or of the section of the city 
may be prevented from leaving it, and others 
prevented from entering. Physicians who dis¬ 
cover a contagious disease in a home are required 
by law to put a placard on the house, proclaiming 
Prevention of the existence of the disease. Persons 

contagious 

diseases. m wliose lionies such diseases exist may 
be prevented from going about their ordinary 
business, and the children from going to school. 
Physicians sometimes grow careless about report¬ 
ing such cases of sickness, and families, thinking 
solely of their own convenience, often try to con¬ 
ceal the presence of contagious disease in their 
homes. This is not good citizenship. Such 
families endanger the health of others. Much 
is being done in some of our cities to prevent the 
spread of disease by a systematic medical in¬ 
spection in the schools. These things often cause 
annoyance, but by suffering the annoyance greater 
disasters may be prevented. 

Of great importance in large cities is the sys¬ 
tem of parks provided for the recreation of the 
people. In small towns parks are not of such 
great importance from the standpoint of health, 
and serve rather as a meeting place of the citizens 


76 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


for various purposes, largely to satisfy their de¬ 
sire for companiouship. But in crowded cities, 
Parks play especially in the heart of such cities 

grounds, etc. breathing place, where fresh, pure 

air and grass and trees can be found and enjoyed 
by the people, is of untold value. One of the 
best of the charitable works in large cities is that 
by which thousands of children in the heart of 
the city are gathered up and sent to the country 
or to the sea-shore, or to fresh-air farms”, 
during the summer months. This is doing much 
to lessen the death rate and the sickness in the 
crowded tenement districts of our cities. There 
are many, however, who cannot leave the city 
long enough to get much benefit from it, if at all, 
and, to them, parks scattered through the crowded 
portions of the city, where they can go evenings 
and Sundays, are a great blessing. In the rapid 
growth of American cities not enough care has 
been taken to provide for such places. Provisions 
should be made in all growing cities to leave 
spaces that may be converted into beautiful and 
refreshing parks as need arises. In some of the 
cities play-grounds are also being established and 
provided with tennis courts, ball grounds and gym¬ 
nastic apparatus. One of the growing practices, 
and a good one, is the opening of school-yards in 
the heart of cities, during the vacation period, as 
play grounds. In some cities public swimming 


THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 


77 


and bathing places are estaldislied, under the 
care of officers to prevent accident. 

In addition to what the government does in 
these lines there are numerous private organiza- 
Private tioiis that do mucli for the health of the 

organizations 

for the pro- Community. An institution like the 
health. Youiig Meii’s Ohristiaii Association does 

a great deal through its gymnasiums. There are 
now in all great cities charity organizations that 
conduct a systematic investigation of the health 
conditions among the poor, and that sometimes 
establish schools for the instruction of the poor 
people in matters pertaining to health, and in the 
preparation of wholesome food. They also see 
that the poor are provided with medical atten¬ 
tion in case of need. 

Just as an individual, or a family, is dependent 
for health upon other individuals and families in 
Dependence of neighborhood, SO also a community 

2SSn‘^3her*’' is luore or less dependent upon other 
communities for its health. This is espe¬ 
cially true in these days when the means of com¬ 
munication between communities are so fully de¬ 
veloped, and when traveling is so common. Con¬ 
tagious diseases spread rapidly from town to 
town, and not infrequently cover large districts 
at the same time. When an epidemic of smallpox 
breaks out in one city it is likely to appear in 
other cities of the country, and even in the coun- 


78 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


try districts. Any ship that enters onr iiarhors 
may bring with it diseases from tlie slums of 
Europe or of Asia. When a factory in one com¬ 
munity pollutes, tlie stream tJiat runs by it with 
refuse, it threatens tlie health, not only of the 
immediate community in which it is situated, but 
also of other communities farther down the 
stream. When Chicago turned its sewage into 
the drainage canal, and thence into the Illinois 
and Mississippi Rivers, cities and towns for many 
miles along these streams became very much 
alarmed, and St. Louis brought suit in the courts 
against Chicago, because the former city derives 
its drinking water from the Mississippi. Our com¬ 
munity life is very complicated, and it is not 
always easj^ to foresee how the actions of one 
individual or community may alfect the lives of 
other individuals or communities. 

On account of this interdependence in matters 
pertaining to health, it is not safe to leave their 
regulation wholly to eacli separate 

Necessity 

for State coinmuiiity, any more than to leave it 

supervision 

over health. Separate family. The common 

interests of all the communities within a given 
area must be guarded by some common autliority. 
Hence the State, through the agency of tlie State 
government, makes provision for the health of all 
tlie people subject to its laws. There is a State 
Board of Health which has supervision over these 


ThK PRorE:!riox of riE.iLTn 


70 


matters. It investigates conditions and recom¬ 
mends legislation to meet them. The State gov¬ 
ernment controls the streams of the State, and 
endeavors to prevent their pollntion. J.aws are 
enacted to ])revent the adulteration of foods in a 
way that is detrimental to health. A State gov¬ 
ernment may declare a quarantine against 
neighboring States when contagions diseases 
are prevalent. Thus, when yellow fever ap¬ 
pears in New Orleans, the surrounding States 
often refuse to allow passengers on the 
railways to enter from Louisiana except 
after the most rigid medical inspection. City, 
county, and township governments, in their 
regulation of matters pertaining to health, 
must conform to the broader regulations of 
the State. 

While the protection of the health of citizens is 
left almost entirely in the hands of the State and 
and local governments, there are some things that 
can be better looked after by the national govern¬ 
ment, because they are of national interest. The 
national government requires all immigrants from 
foreign countries to undergo a medical inspection 
before they are allowed to land. If 
signs of disease are found, all the pas¬ 
sengers of the ship may be quaran¬ 
tined until the danger of contagion is 
passed. Immigrants who are in such physical 


What the 
national 
government 
does for the 
health of 
citizens. 


80 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


condition that tliey are unable to care for them¬ 
selves, and would therefore be a burden upon the 
community, are required to return to the land 
from whicli they came. In the recent session of 
Congress (the first session of the fifty-ninth Con¬ 
gress) some important measures Avere passed for 
the protection of tlie health of the nation. One 
of these is a law providing for a rigid inspection 
of the meats put up in the packing houses of tlie 
country. Anotlier was a Pure Food LaAV to pre¬ 
vent the adulteration of foods with injurious 
materials. The packing of meat unfit to be 
eaten and the selling of impure foods have been 
all too common. Since the product of a great 
packing or canning establishment is sent all over 
the country, its purity is a matter of national 
interest, and therefore is a proper subject for 
national regulation. 

The community is tlius doing a great deal, 
through its governments, to preserve the life and 
The responsi- health of its citizeiis, and it owes to 

billty of 

the citizen. eacli citizeii a reasona})le assurance that 
protection Avill l)e afforded. But, on the other 
hand, each citizen owes something to the com¬ 
munity in this matter. As we have seen, the 
health of the whole community depends largely 
upon the cleanliness and watchfulness of each 
family in all matters pertaining to health. But 
the responsibility of the citizen goes much further 


THE JT^OTECTION OF HEALTH 


81 


than this. He sliould do what lie can to secure 
from the government the best possible service 
in these matters. It is not only a duty; it is 
good common sense. If a man employs a watch¬ 
man to guard liis premises at night, and the 
watchman fails to do his duty, the owner will 
certainly call him to task, and will take every 
precaution against a repetition of the negligence. 
It should never be forgotten that all government 
oflicials are the servants of the people,*and are 
employed to do a certain work. The people have 
a right to demand that they do their work well, 
and to hold them accountable for every failure. 
It is unfortunate that the officials charged with 
the important duties of government, even in such 
matters as protecting our lives and health, often 
become negligent and careless. They cannot be 
relieved of the blame for this. And yet their 
poor service is largely the fault of the citizens 
themselves, who do not take the trouble nor the 
interest to inquire how their servants are doing 
their work, nor to call them to account when it is 
badly done. Each citizen must constantly keep 
his eyes open, and endeavor to keep up a lively 
public sentiment in these matters by constant 
discussion. He should always take the trouble to 
call attention to any remissness in the enforce¬ 
ment of the laws. This is not merely a duty to 
others; his own welfare depends upon it. 


82 . 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


FOR INVESTIGATION. 


1. When your coiuinuiiity was first founded were the geo¬ 
graphical conditions favorable or unfavorable to health? As 
the community has grown, have these geographical conditions 
become more or less favorable? Explain. 

2. How is health cared for in the average farmer’s 
family? 

3. Look up the development of special means to protect 
health in the early history of your community. 

4. If you live in a rural community, what is done by the 
county and township governments for the protection of your 
health. » 

5. Report on the organization and work of a city Roard of 
Health. 

0. What otlicers are employed by the city for the protection 
of health? Report on their various duties. 

7. Report on the streid cleaning department—what it does, 
what it costs, how it is managed, etc. 

8. Re})ort on the sewage system of your community. How 
is the sewag(' dis])Osed of ? Number of miles of sewers? Cost? 
Elhciency? 

9. Report on the methods of dis])osing of garbage in ditler- 
ent cities. W'hat methods seem to l)e best ? 

10. Report on the water supply for drinking purposes. To 
what extent are private wells used ? What is the source of the 
public water supply? Compare the purity of the water from 
private wells and from the public supj)ly. How is the public 
water su])ply brought to families? 

11. Do you know of any epidemic (such as typhoid fever) 
that has appeared in your community, and that was directly 
traceable to impure drinking water? 

12. Report on means of keeping the atmosphere pure in your 
community. 

13. What means are cm})loj'ed in your community to secure 
pure food. 

14. Report on the park system of your community. Is any- 
tliing being done to establish i)ublic playgrounds? 

15. Is the ventilation of your school building good ? Can 
you yourself do anything to imi)rove it ? 


THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 


83 


l(i. Write an essay on the subject, “The Relation of Athletics 
in the School to the Health of the Commnnity.” 

17. Is there any kind of medical inspection in your school ? 
If so, explain its working. Find out if there are any well 
established cases of tlie prevention or checking of epidemics 
by school medical inspection in your community, or in other 
cities. 

18. Is proper care taken in your community to placard 
houses in which contagious diseases exist? 

19. What are some of the ordinances in your community for 
the protection of health 't Are any of these ordinances com¬ 
monly violated? If so, why? Can you do anything to help 
secure the enforcement of such ordinances? 

20. Report on the work of the State Board of Health in your 
State. (So far as possil)le printed reports should he secured 
from the proper oflices direct.) 

21. What other State health officers are there? What is 
their work? 

22. Look up the subject of the relation of immigration to 
public health. 

23. Look up the story of how our government waged war 
on disease in Cuba. What have been the results? Why 
should our national government interest itself in the matter ? 
(Tlie same may he done with reference to the Philippines.) 

24. Look uj) the story of the most recent war against yellow 
fever in our own southern States. Was it carried on by the 
local. State, or national government ? Why ? 

25. Look ui> the provisions of the Meat Inspection Law 
passed by tlie fifty-ninth Congress. Of the Pure Food Law. 


CHAPTER X. 

HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO DRO- 
TECT HIS LIFE AND PROPERTY. 

One of the chief sources of danger to prop¬ 
erty, and often to life, is lire. The loss from 
fire in the United States every year 

Danger from fire. , 

amounts to about $150,000,000. While 
much of this might be avoided by greater watch¬ 
fulness, fire is too powerful an enemy to be left 
to the individual or to the family to cope with. 
It is an enemy that endangers the whole com¬ 
munity ; the whole community must unite for 
defense against it. 

In Philadelphia, in Benjamin Franklin’s time, 
‘‘each householder kept in his shop or his pantry 

Early methods of ^ bucket aiid fourteeii-foot swab *, while 
fire fiKhting. provided hooks, ladders, and 

three rude engines of English make. At the first 
cry of fire the whole town was in excitement; the 
laborer quit his work, the apprentice dropped his 
tools, buyers and sellers swarmed from the mar¬ 
ket ; and the shopkeeper, calling his wife to watch 


84 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


85 


his goods, seized his bucket and hurried away. 
About the buruing building all was confusion and 
disorder. No man was in authority. Each mail 
did as he pleased. Some fell into line and helped 
to pass the full buckets from the pump to the en- 
gine, or the empty buckets from the engine to 
the pump; some caught up the hooks and pulled 
down blazing boards and shingles; some rushed 
into the building with their ozenbrig bags, and 
came out laden with household stuff.” Franklin, 
who was always on the lookout for opportunities 
to improve the condition of his community, 
thought that “if so much could be done in a way 
so bad, a hundred-fold more could be done if a 
little order were introduced.” He was responsible 
for the organization of several fire companies 
equipped with the best apparatus of the times and 
working together under discipline, with the result 
that the losses from fire in Philadelphia decreased 
greatly. 

Until quite recently the fire companies of cities 
were volunteer organizations, whose efficiency was 
kept up largely through the spirit of rivalry. Fre¬ 
quent tournaments were held in which the compa¬ 
nies of the community, or of the neighboring 
towns, contested with each other in running, 
climbing ladders, etc. 

In modern cities the fir.e-fighting arrangements 
are much more complicated and effective.! Steam 


80 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


fire-engines and elaborate apparatus of all kinds 
have been invented. Horses, trained until they 
show almost human intelligence, draw the engines 
and trucks to the fire at a run. The firemen 
Modern are organized into permanent com- 
arrangements. paiiies witli perfect discipline, and are 
paid by the community. The whole department 
is under the direction of a chief, who is appointed 
by the mayor, or by a board. A system of elec¬ 
tric signals is in operation in every city, so that a 
fire can be announced instantly to the nearest fire 
station, and within a minute after the receipt of 
the signal the horses are going down the street at 
a gallop, with men and apparatus. 

An important part of the fire-fighting arrange¬ 
ments is a reliable water supply. At first the 
The water dependence was upon private wells and 
cisterns, then upon public cisterns at 
convenient points. But now every city is sup¬ 
plied with water from some unfailing source. 
Cities on the Great Lakes, like Chicago, draw 
their water from them. Cincinnati and St. Louis 
receive theirs from the rivers on which they 
are situated. Inland cities sometimes get their 
water from deep wells. Some cities get their 
supply from a great distance. It is often neces¬ 
sary to provide storage reservoirs. The water is 
forced to every part of the city through pipes, 
with hydrants at the street corners or other con- 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


87 


venient points, for the attachment of hose. 
Waterworks are sometimes owned and operated 
by cities themselves, but usually by private com¬ 
panies which receive a franchise from the city. 

No department of the public service in cities is 
better organized or more efficient than the fire 
Efficiency of department. It has upon it a great 

city fire 

departments. responsibility, and the community will 
not be satisfied with anything but the greatest 
efficiency possible. The service requires men of 
intelligence, sobriety, courage, and endurance, 
men who are willing constantly to risk their lives 
for the good of all. 

It has been said that seven-eighths of the fires 
that occur could be prevented if proper precau- 
Fauity con- tioiis Were taken in building. That this 

strucflon of 

building as a is true is due, in part, to a lack of intel- 
from fires. Hgeiice Oil the part of builders; in part 
to the willingness of men to take chances for the 
sake of cheapness. In either case the individual 
responsible for poor construction of buildings is 
a menace to the community. A builder is show¬ 
ing good citizenship when he does his job well; 
poor citizenship, when he does it badly through 
ignorance, carelessness, or avarice. 

Communities try to protect themselves against 

Building property, and especially of life, 

ordinances. from fire by means of laws regulating the 

materials used in construction, the height 


8.S 


THE CO.AIMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


of ])iiildiiigs, the number of exits, the presence 
of fire escapes, and many other details. There are 
also oflicers ai)pointed to inspect l)iiildings and to 
report with respect to their safety. An unsafe 
l)nilding may ])e condemned and its use forbidden 
until its defects are remedied. It would seem 
that the people would take a great interest in the 
safe construction of their l)uildings, and that the 
laws protecting them would l)e rigidly enforced. 
But sucli is not always the case. For a long time 
no accident happens. The people ])ecome careless, 
and the laws regulating building are violated con- 
stajitly. It has ])een said that in some cities 
there is hardly a building that meets all the re¬ 
quirements of the law. It requires 
some great disaster to arouse the people 
to their responsil)ility. Such was the Iroquois 
tlieater fire in Chicago, in which six hundred 
people lost their lives. 

In order to ])revent great loss to individuals 
from lire, fire insurance companies have been 

Fire insurance Organized. It is to be noted, however, 
comaanies. insurance Companies do not actually 

prevent the loss of property. They merely dis¬ 
tribute tliat loss among many citizens. When a 
man insures his property he has to pay tlie com¬ 
pany a premium for the protection alforded. Tlie 
l)remiums of thousands of persons produce a large 
sum of money out of which tlie occasional losses 


And their 
violation. 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


89 


by an individual are met. Thousands of property 
owners in all parts of the land are thus sharing in 
the losses of individuals in every small commun¬ 
ity. This illustrates well the mutual interests of 
the members of a community. When the great 
lire occurred in San Francisco, following the earth¬ 
quake, the loss fell very heavily upon the insur¬ 
ance companies of the country. In order to meet 
the situation many companies raised the rates of 
insurance all over the country. Thus people 
everywhere were helping to l)ear the burden 
of it. 

The thief, like fire, is a common enemy to prop¬ 
erty and sometimes to life, and as communities 

Protection grow they organize themselves against 
against theft, rougli Communities on the 

frontier, before government ■ and law are well 
established, as in the early days of California, the 
honest but rough citizens sometimes protect 
themselves by voluntary organizations, frequently 
known as vigilance committees. They seek out 
offenders and punish them promptly, too often 
without giving them a fair trial. Similar 
methods are sometimes found in communities 
where there is a regular government, as in the 
case of “white-capping” and “lynching” 
parties. But such methods are full of evil. They 
are usually carried out under cover of darkness 
and in secret, thus opening a way for rowdy- 


90 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


ism and violence under a pretense of administer- 
The rieht to ing justice. A crowd of men gathered to- 
a fair trial. getjier hastily in a spirit of revenge quick¬ 
ly becomes a mob, and is likely to administer pun¬ 
ishment to innocent persons, or cruel and inhuman 
punishment to the guilty. One of the most sacred 
rights of Americans is the right to a fair trial, 
even though the accused is known to be guilty, 
before a jury of his fellow citizens, and with wit¬ 
nesses in his favor. This right is guaranteed in 
. . the Constitution of the United States, 

"ynchlLe which also says that no cruel and un- 

pariies. usual punishmeiits shall be inflicted 

(see Amendments VI and VIII). It also declares 
that no person shall be “deprived of life, liberty, 
or property without due process of law ” (Aiuiend- 
ment V). If vigilance committees are in a 
measure justified in communities where there is 


no regularly organized government or law, white¬ 
capping and lynching parties in communities with 
regularly organized governments are wholly with¬ 
out excuse. Such parties usurp powers granted 
by the Constitution to the existing government, 
and are as lawless as the original offender. They 
tend to demoralize the community, and to create 
a disregard for law and order and disrespect for 
government. 

Our local governments have officers to protect 
the life and property of citizens, and to arrest 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


01 


persons who interfere with the rights of others. 

In townships there are constables; in 

The police. ... 

counties, sheriffs and their deputies ; in 
cities, the police department. The last requires 
a high degree of organization because of the com¬ 
plex conditions of city life. In great cities the 
police are organized very much like an army, 
under a chief of police and many subordinate 
officers. In the City of Greater New York the 
police force consists of about eight thousand men, 
or as many as constituted the American army 
at its best during the Revolutionary War. 

The police of a city patrol its streets at all 
times of the day and night to protect property 
Duties of against violence. But they 

the police. jj^ve many other duties. They keep 

order in crowds; they guard dangerous street 
crossings, assisting people across and regulating 
the movements of vehicles; they assist the health 
department in enforcing its regulations; they 
render aid at fires in keeping the crowds back for 
their own safety and to prevent interference with 
the work of the firemen. As in the case of the 
fire department, the duties of the police require 
strength, courage, and intelligence. It is a mis¬ 
fortune, however, that the police departments of 
our cities are not usually as efficient as the fire 
departments. Some of the reasons for this will 
be considered in a later chapter (see chapter 


92 


THE COMMUNITY AND TUK CITIZEN 


XVIII). The police department of the city often 
works together with the sheriff of tlie county and 
liis deputies, and in times of great danger private 
citizens may l)e sworn into service to aid the 
police. At all times the police may call upon 


Street liglithig. 


private citizens for aid if necessary. 

Anotlier important arrangement for tlie safety 
of property and life is a system of street lighting. 

In ancient cities, like Rome, the streets 
were narrow and crooked, and at night 
were totally dark, except as citizens lighted their 
way witli torclies. Modern American cities have, 
as a rule, lu'oad, straiglit streets, paved, and 
illuminated at night hy oil, gas, or electric lights. 
Tlie street lighting plant is sometimes owned by 
the city and managed liy the government; but it 
is usually in the hands of private companies paid 
by the city for its services. 

Oommunities often regulate certain kinds of 
business for the sake of safety. The manufacture 
ves is dangerous to life and 
is therefore usually 
carried on under restrictions as to the location of 
the factory, etc. The licpior tralfic is usually 
restricted to certain localities, and is checked by 
the imposition of more or less heavy license fees. 
In some communities it is prohiliited altogether. 
This is not merely because of the immoralities 
connected with it, but because it tends to create. 


Rejrulation of e 

of business 

for safety. property, and 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


‘Ki 

disorder and lawlessness, with consequent danger 
to property and life. A large part of the policing 
of a city is made necessary by the disorders grow¬ 
ing out of the sale of intoxicating liquors. 

In a large community every man’s life and 
safety largely depend upon the carefulness of 
Prevention of Ptliers. The tliousands of people who 
accidents, travel Oil the cars each day are at the 

mercy of those who run the train—the engineer, 
the conductor, the switchman, the train despatch- 
ers, etc. Gross carelessness on the part of such 
responsible persons may be considered a criminal 
olfense, and may be punished by the proper 
authorities. But it is better to prevent accidents 
than to punish the responsible person after the 
accident occurs. Therefore the work of such per¬ 
sons is usually regulated by law, and arrange¬ 
ments are made to prevent accident. Railroads 
may be compelled to station watchmen at danger¬ 
ous crossings, to provide gates which are closed at 
the approach of a train, or to run their tracks 
across streets on elevated roadways, or under¬ 
neath the street. The rate of speed at which a 
train, or electric car, or automobile, may run is 
established by law, and violations of the law are 
punishable byline. The government also appoints 
building inspectors to see that new buildings are 
constructed according to regulation, and that oM 
buildings are safd; elevator inspectors, to inspect 


94 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


and report on the safety of elevators; and boiler 
inspectors who visit factories and report on the 
condition of boilers. These are only examples 
of many precautions taken to prevent accident to 
life and property. 

Here again we have to notice the constant vio¬ 
lation and lax enforcement of the law. Trains 
rush through cities and across streets at 

unlawful speed. Street cars and auto¬ 
prevent accident. 

mobiles do the same. Railroads often 
resist as long as they can attempts to compel them 
to elevate their tracks, or provide safety gates. 
Elevators are run by incompetent persons and 
without inspection of their machinery. Inspectors 
do their work in a careless manner. Theatres are 
built without due regard to the number and posi¬ 
tion of exits. It is only when some frightful acci¬ 
dent occurs that the people awake to the perils 
they are subjected to by ignorant, or thoughtless, or 
vicious persons, who have little regard for the 
rights of others in community life. The individual 
who disregards the regulations imposed by the 
community, even in such slight matters as the 
speed of his bicycle, or the lighting of its lamp on 
a dark night, is helping to make his com¬ 
munity an unsafe and unpleasant place to live. 

While the protection of property and life is 
thus largely in the hands of the local communi¬ 
ties, the State performs an important service for 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


95 


all the communities in its boundaries. Many 
c of the laws that constables, sheriffs, 

Service of the ’ ’ 

fec/ine life' poHce are called upon to enforce are 

and property, ^he State government, 

and apply alike to all the communities of the 
State. The State has a general organization cor¬ 
responding, in a measure, to the police of cities, 
in its militia. In theory, the militia of a State 
consists of all able-bodied men between the ages 

of eighteen and forty-five, who could be 

The militia. 

called out in time of great public dan¬ 
ger to restore order or to repel invasion. In fact, 
however, it is composed of a number of regiments 
of volunteers, organized into companies in various 
communities of the State. Military discipline pre¬ 
vails over a company when organized. In case of 
riot or disorder in any part of the State which 
the local authorities cannot handle, the Gov¬ 
ernor may be called upon to send one or more 
companies to aid in restoring order, as in the case 
of riots among striking coal miners in Illinois or 
Pennsylvania. The militia of the several States 
may be called out by the President of the United 
States to suppress insurrection or to repel invasion. 
It may not, however, be sent by him for duty out¬ 
side of the United States. As an organized army 
in time of war the militia of the States has shown 
some defects. In the Revolution and the War of 
1812 it caused much trouble because of the jeal- 


96 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

ousies of the several States. Governors sometimes 
refused to allow their militia to go outside of 
their States. Then, too, as in recent wars, the 
militia companies have often proved poorly offi¬ 
cered, poorly drilled and equipped, and impatient 
of discipline. It has usually been necessary to 
put the militia through a severe course of training 
and to weed out incompetent officers after the war 
had begun. 

For the defense of our national possessions and 
of the liberty of our citizens against enemies 
National froiii witliout, we maintain an army and 
defense. ^ iiavy. Our army is very small as com¬ 
pared with the armies of other great nations. 
Our geographical position, separated as we are 
from other great powers, has made a large stand¬ 
ing army unnecessary. The belief of the founders 
of our nation was that a large standing army was 
dangerous to the liberties of the people and a bur¬ 
den because of its expense. Our policy has always 
been, therefore, in favor of as small an army as is 

consistent with our national safety. In 

The army. . 

time of war our dependence has been 
chiefly upon the militia of the States, or a citizen 
army enlisted for the occasion. At the time of 
the Civil War an army of 2,000,000 men was 
raised by enlistment in the North, and one of 
1,000,000 men in the South. At the present time 
it would be possible to raise a vastly greater army 


PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 


97 


than this, although our standing army of regular 
soldiers numbers less than 100,000 men. 

The army not only defends our territory against 
invasion, but it may also be sent to any part of 
the world to protect the rights of American citi¬ 
zens. It may also be called upon to quell dis¬ 
turbances when the local or State authorities are 
unable to do so. Thus, in 1894 a great strike oc¬ 
curred in Chicago, during which much property 
was destroyed and commerce between the States 
interfered with. The local and State authorities 
failing to quell the disturbance, the President of 
the United States, who is Oommander-in-Ohief of 
the Army, sent troops to Chicago to restore order. 
At the time of the earthquake and fire in San 
Francisco national troops from the fort near by 
were quickly rushed into the city to help in main¬ 
taining order and in preserving property and life. 
They of course co-operated with the State militia 
and the city police. But the national troops 
are usually more effective in restoring order 
than either the militia or police. The lat¬ 
ter, living permanently in the local commun¬ 
ity, are more likely to be influenced by sym¬ 
pathy with disturbers of order, or by fear 
of public opinion. What special interest did 
the nation have in preventing the total de¬ 
struction of San Francisco, aside from mere 
sympathy, that would lead the national gov- 


98 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


eriiment to use its army for the purpose? 

The navy is also a means of protection. It 
has been the policy of the American government 
to keep our navy down to the smallest 
^ size consistent with our national safety, 

as in the case of the army. But because of our 
rapidly growing commerce, and the increasing 
interests of American citizens in foreign lands, 
together with the acquisition of territory across 
the seas, a strong navy has become more essential 
than a large army. At the present time our navy 
compares favorably in strength with those of 
other large nations. 

The national government has done a great deal 
for the protection of life and property by removing 
Life-saving obstructioiis to navigation along the 
on the coast. Py improving harbors, as at New 

York and at the mouth of the Columbia River, by 
erecting light-houses and establishing life-saving 
stations. Deeds of heroism are performed every 
year by the life-savers, by whicli scores of lives 
and thousands of dollars’ worth of property are 
saved. Do you knoAv any stories of heroic deeds 
by the life-savers? We may also mention the 
construction of levees along some of our rivers, as 
on the lower courses of the Mississippi, for the 
protection of the land against Hoods. 

In closing this chapter, let us notice that the 
protection of health, life, and property is placed 


PROTF>CTI()N OF PROIR^RTY AND LIFE 


1)9 


almost wholly in the liaiids of local goverii- 
ProtecUonof Clients; that the State government acts 
and property Only wlieii the Welfare of the whole 

chiefly in the 

State demands it, or when the difficul- 
governinents. beyoiul the pOWei’S of 

the local authorities; and that the national gov¬ 
ernment acts for the nation at large, and inter¬ 
feres in local protection only when the interests 
of the whole nation are at stake, or when the 
local and State antliorities prove themselves incap- 
uble of handling the situation. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 


1. If you have ever seen a fire in the country, descrihe how 
it was fought. How successful was the metliod’? 

2. Look up tlie history of the development of means of fire 
fighting in your community. 

3. Describe the organization of the fire department in your 
city. How is the highest degree of efficiency among the fire¬ 
men secured? 

4. Report on the waterworks system of your city. Is it 
efficient? If not, why? 

5. Try to find out the chief causes of the fires in your com¬ 
munity in the last year. 

6. From the city ordinances find some of the regulations 
regarding the construction of buildings in your community. 

7. Is there building inspection in your community? How 
efficient is it? Is violation of building ordinances in your com¬ 
munity common? 

8. Report on the duties of the constable. Of the sheriff. 

9. Look up the history of the development of police pro¬ 
tection in your city. 

10. Descrilie the organization of the police department. Is 
it as efficient as the fire department? 


100 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


11. Is there any reason why the peoi)le should expect less 
efficient service from the police department than from the fire 
de})artment? 

12. Write an essay on the methods of protecting property in 
colonial times. 

13. Look up the services of Benjamin Franklin in Philadel- 
l>hia in improving the fire department, the night watch, and 
the lighting of the streets (see Franklin’s Autobiography). 

14. What is the method of street lighting in your community? 
Is it done hy the community itself, or hy a i)rivate company? 
Is it as well done as it should be? 

15. Are any kinds of business in your community regulated 
for the protection of life and property? 

1(). (-an you find any other ways in which property is i)ro- 
te(4ed besides those mentioned in this chapter? 

17. Investigate the subject of the violation of speed regula¬ 
tions, and other regulations to secure safety on the streets of 
your city. 

18. What does the Constitution of the United States provide 
regarding militia? (Art. I, secs. 8, 10; Art. H, sec. 2; 
Amend. H). 

10. Report on the organization of the militia in your 
State. 

20. Report on the growth and organization of the army. 

21. Re])ort on the growth and organization of the navy. 

22. Report on the work of the life-saving stations on the 
coast. 


CHAPTER XL 


HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO 
SATISFY HIS DESIRE FOR WEALTH. 

We have only to think of the life of the ordi¬ 
nary man—on the farm, in the mines, in tlie shop. 


in the store, or in a profession—to make 
it clear that most of his waking hours 


Business 

activities. 


are spent in a set of activities for the purpose of 
what we call “making money,” or “getting a 
living”, or “acquiring property” or “wealth”. 
They are his business activities, in other words. 

In a man’s business life we have a good illus¬ 
tration of activities resulting from a combination 


of desires (see chapter IV, page 20). 
One of these is the desire for ownership. 


Why men 
seek wealth. 


There is a pleasure in mere possession, as every 
boy can testify who has made a collection of 
stamps, or Indian relics, or mineral specimens. 
So men engage in business partly for the pleasure 
of acquiring property. To a great many men busi¬ 
ness is a kind of game and gives them the same 
kind of pleasure that boys find in a game of ball. 


101 


102 


Tin: COMMCMTV A.N*U TIIK (TTIZKN 


Hut buHidoH ihiH rru;n enf'Ufsc^ in businesH activi- 
ti(;H to (jet the meam to satisfy their other desires. 
Wiic.n w(; nay Ifiat a man is “ making'money ”, we 
know that it is not the njoney iie is after s^j much 
as tin; thin^^s fie ean i^et witfi it. If we say that 
a man is wortfi fifty tfiousaml dollars, we do not 
m^e.ffssarily mean tfiat In; lias fifty tliousand dollars 
in easfi, hut that fie has things the worth of which is 
measured by fifty thousand dollars. Mon(;y is merely 

. , tin; rm;asure of wealtli, and a means of 

fielfling men to (;X(d)ange wealtli. The 
wealth itself (tonsists of food to eat, (dothes to 
w(;ar, houH(;H for Hh(;lt(;r, hooks to read, pictures to 
look a1/—anything and (;v(;rything that can he 
hought^ and sold, that satisfies the desires of life, 
and that meai have; to work or make sacrifices 
for. 

A man (;ngag(;s in husin(;ss activities to satisfy 
tin; wants of himsedf and his family. Hut he can 
do this only hy [xud’orming work that will he use¬ 
ful i-o oth(‘rs, and that will Indp to satisfy their 
d(;sir(;s. A ciirjMmter, in order to gain a liveli¬ 
hood and provide his family with the comforts of 
life-, must huild houses for others, lie is most 
(MUKHU’iKxl, no douht, alxAit what he will receive for 
his work. Hut i.h(‘ c.ommunity is most concerned 
ahouti what he produces. If he does careful, skilful 
work he is (xmsideiHxl a valiiahle member of the 
community. If lu; is careless, or a fxxir workman. 


Till-: iM{()i)i’(’'ri()N oi-’ \vi-:Ai;rii 


10:5 


lie is (*()nsi(loi*(Ml, in that r(‘S|)(‘cl, a poor citizcMi. 

Thci1ic.1i. l>i’<‘|mriiiK to l.o, a 

iTle'ol'pr.iiic" i'> >ll<“ <'olll lllll 111 ty . Allliollf’il 

t)vc work 

\v(‘ sliall always r(M*(MV(‘ Iroiii tli(‘ com- 
muiiity nuicli more' than W(‘ (•anf»iv(‘ to it, w(‘ shall 
1)0 judged nundi more hy what w(‘ giv(‘ or do. 
Good citizenship shows itself in th(‘ produc¬ 
tive work of a man more tlian in any other 


way. 

It should also never 1)(‘ forgottem that the 
welfare of the nation depends upon the great body of 

The builders of woi'kiny foi' the production 

our nation. wealth, iiiore truly than it does upon 

the men who hold the offices of government. 
Tlie history of our country has tiofui a story 
of tlie clearing of forests, of the reclaiming of 
the soil for agriculture, of the opening of mines, 
and of the growth of commerce, manufactures, and 
cities. It is a story of the building of railroads 
and steamboats, of telegraphs and telephones. 
The men who have done these things are as much 
the builders of our .nation as the men who 
made our constitutions and organized our gov¬ 
ernments. 

Success in producing or acquiring wealth depends 
upon life in a community. One man 

The production of 

wealth depends living aloiie Oil a desert island could 
community. hardly be considered wealthy. He 
might have brought with him a million dollars in 


104 


tup: community and the citizen 


gold. But to him it would not lie wealth because 
there is nothing to buy with it, and no one to 
buy from. He might fence in the whole island 
and call it his. But beyond providing him with 
the immediate necessities of life, which are slight, 
it would have little value to him. Even if he had 
the means of planting the whole island in grain, 
the product would not be wealth beyond a small 
amount, for he could neither use all of it, nor dis¬ 
pose of it. When pioneers first went into the west, 
each man could obtain for himself a large farm 
for almost nothing (see page 27). There was 
much land, and but few people who wanted it. 
Upon his farm the pioneer raised crops. The por¬ 
tion that he could use was wealth to him; but he 
could not use much. Whether the remainder was 
Avealth or not depended upon whether there were 
people to whom he ccmld dispose of it. His near¬ 
est neighbors did not want it, for they raised crops 
of their own. The nearest markets were a long 
way oil, and the means of transportation were 
poor. But soon settlers began to come in large 
numbers in search of land. All available land was 
soon taken up, and farms became more valuable. 
The land that the first settler obtained from the 
government for .$1.25 an acre he could now sell for, 
say, $10.00 an acre,because there were others who 
wanted it. Perhaps a town now grew up, and 
some of the farm land was cut up into town 


THE PRODUCTION OF WEALTH 


105 


lots. The people who came crowding into tlie 
town were now willing to pay for a small lot 
as mnc<}i as tlie first settler did for his whole 
farm. And if the town should grow into a large 
city, a lot that originally cost, say, $50.00 may 
sell for perhaps $50,000 for business purposes. 
The people of the town had to be fed, and good 
roads and railroads were after a while built to 
other cities. The farmer could tlien dispose of all 
his product to other people. He accumulated 
wealth, not because there was any more land, nor 
because it was any more fertile than it had been, 
but because there were more people who had use 
for what he raised. 

When the pioneer family came into the wilder¬ 
ness it was almost wholly dependent upon its own 
efforts for the accumulation of wealth. (See 
pages 4 and 5; and chap. V.) The articles of 
home manufacture were usually rough and simple. 
There were few materials to select from. The 
many duties of farm life left little time for the 
doing of any one thing except in the simplest way 
possible. It was found that the best results were 
secured 5|/ dividing the work among the members of the 
family according to their fitness for it, as 

The production 

theTionwr" nearly as -possible. The men of the 
family. family did most of tlie outdoor work, 

tilling the fields, cutting the fuel, repairing the 
buildings and tools, and divided this work among 


10() THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

them. The women did the cooking, the spinning 
and weaving, and looked after the lioiise gen¬ 
erally. The children had their regular tasks 
assigned them. Each meml)er of the family con- 
trilmted a definite service for all, and became 
more skillful than the others in its performance. 
But all worked together for the common good, 
under the direction of the parents. 

What thus takes place in the family also takes 
place on a larger scale in the community as it 
The division grows. One man builds a mill on the 

of tasks in a 

community. stream and grinds the grain of all the 
farmers. A blacksmith sets up his shop and 
repairs the tools of the community better than the 
farmers could do it for themselves. A shoemaker 
comes and relieves the members of the commu¬ 
nity of the task of making their own shoes, and 
does l)etter work than they could do. A store is 
established by another from which clothing and 
other articles formerly made at home can be 
secured. Thus, one after another, the burdens of 
the farmer are removed, and it becomes his 
Exchange Special busiiiess to provide farm products 

of wealth. i? j i i i 

lor the whole community in return for 
the things that the otlu'rs are doing for him. 
With the division of tasks there becomes neces¬ 
sary an exchange of products and of services. 

With the introduction of machinery and the 
building of great factories where hundreds of men 


THE PliODUCTIOX OF WEALTH 


107 


are employed, tlie division of tasks lias become 
more complete, and each worker produces very 
What each little of the total product to satisfy his 

man produces 

and receives. owii aiul otlier people’s waiits. A visit 
to a factory in your neighborhood to see how the 
work of turning out a single article is divided among 
the different workmen would be interesting and 
and profitable. In a factory for the manufacture 
of milling machinery, for example, there is one 
set of workmen who do nothing but peck at the 
surface of millstones with hammers to make them 
rough. They apparently contribute very little to 
the general welfare. But the community provides 
them with a living in order that they may do this 
one thing, and do it well. We say that they 
receive so much a day for their work. But in 
reality they are being supplied with bread and 
meat, clothing and shelter, furniture and tools, 
medicines and doctors’ services, education for 
their children, religious teaching on Sundays, 
entertainment at the theatres, and scores of other 
things, in exchange for their monotonous and 
apparently unimportant work of putting rough 
surfaces on mill-stones. 

Division of occupations also takes place in 
accordance with geographical location. 

Division of 

acSi^to great importance in a large 

location. community like our nation. In some 
parts of our country corn is the cliief product; in 


108 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


others, wheat; in others, cotton; in others, fruit. 
In some parts cattle or sheep raising takes 
the place of farming; in other parts mining. 
The different metals are found in different 
localities. In one place lumbering is the chief 
occupation; in another place, fishing. One 
region becomes famous for its cotton manu¬ 
factures; another for silk; another for iron. 
And so on indefinitely. What are some of the 
geographical conditions that lead to these differ¬ 
ences in occupation in diff erent localities ? Think 
for yourselves of the crowd of workers in all parts 
of our country who are working to sujiply you with 
the comforts and necessities of life. The little 
that each of us does for himself and for his com¬ 
munity seems very insignificant in comparison 
with what he receives. 

Every successful business man knows that 
wealth can be accumulated as much by saving as 

by producing it. He tries not to waste his 

Savins. 

fuel. He introduces smoke consumers 
in order to convert the smoke of his furnaces into 
steam poAver. In a well managed saw-mill not 
only is the body of the logs sawed into lumber, 
but the waste from this process is made into tool 
handles, chair rounds, and so on. The pieces that 
are too small for manufacturing purposes are made 
into bundles and sold in the cities for kindling. 
Even the sawdust is put to various uses. When 


THE PRODUCTION OF WEALTH 109 

41 ^ 

the refining of petroleum oil first began there was 
a great deal of waste product. But it has 
been found that from this former waste there 
may be produced many valuable by-products, such 
as paraffin, vaseline, and dye stuffs. These by¬ 
products of a manufacturing process are some¬ 
times more valuable than the main product. 

There is usually a good deal of waste in the 
household. It is perhaps greatest in the matter 
Waste and of food. “Scraps” are thrown away 

saving in 

the home. that might be used by a skillful house¬ 
keeper. Sometimes unnecessary quantities are 
used. Food is unskillfully prepared. Many a good 
dish is spoiled in the cooking. Another waste is 
due to ignorance of the nourishing values of dif¬ 
ferent articles of food. The man who works with 
his hands in the open air, constantly exercising 
his muscles, needs a different kind of nourishment 
from the student, for example, who sits quietly 
at his desk in the house all day. Those who are 
fed upon the wrong kinds of food, or upon food 
improperly prepared, cannot do as good work as 
they otherwise could. Not the least important 
means of securing good citizenship, as shown in 
effective work in the community, is a better 
management of the kitchens in the homes of the 
community. It is said that more than three- 
fourths of the household expenditures in our 
country are made by the. women. It is a highly 


110 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


important service to the community for the girls 
who are to become tlie managers of the house¬ 
holds to learn the lesson of saving. 

The man who spends his money as fast as he 
gets it is a spendthrift. The man who hoards it 
e ^ is a miser. The wise saver is the man 

having by 

Investment. speiuls less than he receives, and 

invests the surplus so that it will produce more wealth. 
There are two things to be said about this kind of 


saving. 

1. It is the duty of every good citizen to save 
by investment for two reasons, (a) He should 
endeavor to put it beyond a possibility that he 
shall ever be a burden upon others for his support 
in time of sickness, old age, or lack of employ¬ 
ment. He should be self-supporting at all times, 
(b) It is through the investment of savings that 
productive industries are kept up, and the wealth 

of the community increased. These 

Capital. 

savings are invested in the form of 
capital:, in factories and machinery, in railways 
and other means of transportation, in stocks of 
merchandise, in enterprises of every kind that 
contribute to the prosperity of the community. 
It is the duty of every citizen to endeavor, not 
only not to be a burden, but to contribute to the 
well-being of the community by the greatest 
possible amount of production. 

2. It is community life that makes it possible 


THE PRODUCTION OF WEALTH 


HI 


for the individual to save in this way. All men 
are not equally successful in saving. It is said 
that three-quarters of tlie wealth of our country 
is in the hands of less tlian one-tenth of the popu¬ 
lation. Men who have greater industry, greater 
skill, greater prudence, and greater managing 
power have a right to the greater results of their 
ability. Such men are necessary in a community. 
They furnish the means by whicli great enter¬ 
itises are carried on. Hut it must not l)e 
forgotten that their wealth has not been accumu¬ 
lated solely by their own efforts. They are 
enjoying the fruits of community life. They owe 
to the community a full return for their pros¬ 
perity . 

Property rights have always been considered 
among the most sacred rights of Americans. The 
Revolutionary War was brought on 
because the English government per¬ 
sistently refused to recognize these rights of the 
colonists. It took away a part of their property 
by taxation without asking their consent. It 
passed laws interfering with their commerce and 
manufactures. It quartered troops in their homes 
without their permission. It gave its officers 
unlimited power to search their houses and ships, 
without duly protecting the rights of innocent 
and law-abiding citizens. So when independence 
had been won and a Constitution was to be 


112 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


adopted, the people thought that oue of the most 
important■ things to be secured was a sure pro¬ 
tection of these rights against their own govern¬ 
ments. The States refused to ratify the Consti¬ 
tution until amendments securing these rights had 
been promised. 

The protection of the property rights of citizens 
and the regulation of their business activities are 
almost wholly in the hands of the State govern¬ 
ment. Wlien a group of men with capital wish 
to organize as a corporation to manufacture goods of 
any sort, or to build and operate a railroad or a 
trolley line, or to establish an insurance company 
for the protection of property, it is almost always 
the State that gives them the authority to organ¬ 
ize and to transact business. It is the State, also, 
that protects the rights of labor. It is only the 
more recent State constitutions that make any 
direct provision for the benefit of the workingmen 
as a class, because when the earlier constitutions 
were framed, the factory system, Avith its division 
State control of labor, and labor organizations had 

over wealth and 

production. not coiue iiito existence. But State 
legislatures make laws protecting the working 
people from injustice. Most of the States have 
laws permitting the incorporation of labor unions, 
which are organizations to secure, by united 
action, improvements in the conditions of the 
working classes. State laws prevent child labor, 


THE PRODUCTION OF WEALTH 


113 


and regulate the number of hours tliat women 
sliall be allowed to work in factories. State laws 
provide for the health of workers in factories and 
mines by requiring the employers to maintain 
good sanitary conditions, and by a system of 
inspection of mines and factories to see that the 
requirements are carried out. Each State has 
unlimited control over all business relations 
within its borders. 

During the Revolutionary War and after it, un¬ 
til the Constitution was adopted, the thirteen 
Ourpreant States Considered themselves thirteen 

national 

SoMo”*”* separate communities, in almost every 
confusion particular, and were bound together into 

under the 

Confederation, a larger commuiiity, or-Confederation, 
only for purposes of common defense against for¬ 
eign powers. There were few common laws ap¬ 
plying to all the States alike. Each State had its 
own form of money. Each was at liberty to lay 
taxes upon goods brought in from other States. 
So great did the confusion become, and so bitter 
were the jealousies among the States, that the 
Confederation was about to fall to pieces and the 
fruits of the Revolution to be lost. It was this 
confusion in the commercial affairs among the 
States that led to the calling of the convention 
that finally framed our present Constitution. 

The Constitution was framed, then, because of 
confusion in the business relations among the 


114 


TliE COMMUNITY AND THE CITI2 :eN 


States, and because it was found necessary to 
have a government that could protect the common 
business interests of all. The Congress 

Powers of the 

national govern- created by the Constitution was given 
ness affairs. power, wliicli the Coiigress of the 

Confederation had not had, of laying and collect¬ 
ing taxes “ for the common defense and general 
welfare”, but it was provided that the ‘'duties, im¬ 
posts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the 
United States” (Art. I, sec. 8, clause 1). Con¬ 
gress was also given the power “to regulate com¬ 
merce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes” (Art. I, sec. 8, 
clause 8.) 

In order to maintain successful business 
relations in a community it is necessary that 
there be a reliable and uniform system of 
money. Congress was therefore given tlie power 
“to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and 
of foreign coin, and to lix the standard of 
weights and measures” (Art. I, sec. 8, clauses). 

Under these powers Congress has enacted laws 
providing for a uniform currency, and has provided 
National ^ national banking system which is not 

limited to merely an aid to the government in 

matters of 

KsTtothe the currency and in borrowing 

whole nation, money, but is also a great convenience 

to the business men of the whole country. Under 
its power to regulate foreign trade. Congress has 


THE PRODUCTION OF WEALTH 


115 


levied duties sufficiently heavy to check the im¬ 
portation of certain articles, and thus to encour¬ 
age the manufacture of these articles at home. 
Under its power to regulate commerce among the 
several States, Congress has passed laws to regu¬ 
late the business of corporations doing business in 
several States, such as the railroads and the meat 
packing establishments in the west. The national 
government has also established a consular system^ 
to look after the commercial relations of this 
country with foreign nations. Consuls are ap¬ 
pointed by our government to go to the im¬ 
portant cities of all civilized countries. They have 
many duties, but among other things they inves¬ 
tigate the products and manufactures of the coun¬ 
tries to which they are sent, try to create a mar¬ 
ket in those countries for products of the United 
States, and, in general, try to stimulate favorable 
business relations between our country and all 
the world. Foreign countries also have consuls 
in the important cities of our land. But 
while the national government has exercised 
great powers over the business activities of the 
country, and is constantly exercising more and 
more such powers, they are definitely limited to 
matters that are of common interest to the whole 
nation. 


116 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


EUR INVESTIOATION. 

1. Discuss ill class tlie idea of wealth ; of {iroperty; of money 
as a measure of wealtli and as a means of exchange. 

2. Select some of the important men of our history, such as 
Washington and Franklin, and report on their lives as business 
men. Can you show any important service they performed 
for their country by their ordinary business activities? 

3. What did the first settlers in your community 

pay for the land? What is the price of farm land there 
now? If you live in a town, wliat is the price of lots 
in the residence portion? In the business part? Why the 
difference? 

4. In the pioneer days of your community did the 

farmers have any diiliculty in disposing of their products? 
Did they receive money or something else in exchange 
for them? 

6. Compare the variety of occupations in a farmer’s family 
in your neighborhood with that of a pioneer family. 

6. Describe the division of tasks in your own family. 

7. iMake a list of the different occupations in your own 

community. How many of these were once carried on in 
each family? 

8. What advantages can you see in having a division of 
occupations? 

9. \ isit a factory and report on the division of labor you 
find there. 

10. Take the list of occupations mentioned in the paragraph 
on the geographical division of occupations (i)age 107) and 
locate on a map of the United States a region charac'terized by 
each. Show how geographical conditions determine this divi¬ 
sion of occupations. 

11. Is there a geograiihical division of occupations in your 
State? Draw a map of your State and locate characteristic 
occupations. 

12. Investigate' some factory or business establishment and 
tind out how waste is provided for. 

13. If there is a gas factory in your community, investigate 
it to tind out what l)y-products are produced. 

14. What are some of the ways in which men may save 
money by investment? 


THE PROOrCTrOX OF WEALTH 


117 


15. What are some of the la))or organizations in yonr com¬ 
munity? What are their purposes? 

1(>. Show how a strike of workmen may aftect all the mem¬ 
bers of a community. How should differences between work¬ 
men and their employers he settled? Why? 

17. Which of the first ten amendments to the Constitution 
of the United States guarantee projx'rty rights of citizens? 

18. Is there anything in your State constitution for the pro¬ 
tection of the interests of the laboring classes? Anything in re¬ 
gard to business corporations? 

19. How does a national bank help business men? Are there 
any other banks besides national banks? 

20. Describe the organization of the United States consular 
system. What are its duties? 


CHAPTER XII. 


HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN IN 
TIIANSrOKTATION AND COMMUNICATION. 

You will recall that in seeking a site for 
the community described in the first chapter, 
Community life the exploring committee was to notice 
SSiioT especially whether there were any roads 
or canals near by, either already built or proposed. 
The very nature of a community implies that 
there must be means of communication, for with¬ 
out it there could be no acting together. One of 
the obstacles in the way of united action among 
the thirteen American colonies was the absence 
of good roads connecting them. The trip from 
New York to Boston in those days required six 
days. A traveller tells us of spending a month in 
making the journey from New York to Washing¬ 
ton at a little later time. In Washington’s 
presidency all passengers and goods passing be¬ 
tween Boston and New York by land were 
carried by two stages and twelve horses. Under 
such conditions it is not strange that it was difii- 
X18 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMPTNICATION 


110 


cult to develop a spirit of union among the 
colonies. 

Hie division of tasks according to occupation 
and geographical location (page 107) would be 
Transportation imilossible if there were not also a 

and exchantre 

of goods. means of exchanging the products of 
the labor of the different workers and of the 
different localities. In order that the labor 
expended in producing a spool of thread from 
cotton raised in the fields of Texas may be 
exchanged for the labor expended in producing a 
loaf of bread from wheat raised in the fields of 
North Dakota, there are necessary thousands of 
men, horses, and wagons; dray and express 
lines; railway trains and canal boats; and lake 
and ocean steamers—all working in many parts of 
the country to do the carryinq necessary to make 
the exchange. 

In the early part of the last century it cost one 
hundred and twenty-five dollars to haul a ton of 
goods from Philadelphia to Pittsburg by wagon, 
the only means of transportation. It cost two 
dollars and a half to carry a bushel of salt three 
hundred miles. Wheat could not be transported 
by wagon more than one hundred and fifty miles, 
because it could not be sold at a price to cover 
the cost of transportation. When the cost of 
transportation was so great, the commonest arti¬ 
cles of household use today became luxuries which 


120 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the people could not afford. The cause of all 
this was the excessively bad roads. 

The food supply of the nation comes from the 
farms. The raw materials for manufacture come 

Importance of Same source and from the forest 

country roads. miiies. The coiufort of living 

for all of us, in the city as well as in the country, 
depends in a very great degree upon the ease with 
which these raw products can be brought in from 
the country districts. It is said that ninety-five 
per cent of every load by train, steamship, or ex¬ 
press, must be carted over a highway. The coun¬ 
try roads are the foundation of our transportation 
system. And yet they have been given compara¬ 
tively little attention, and America is far behind 
many other civilized countries in their construc¬ 
tion and preservation. 

The character of the land has great importance 
in determining good or bad roads. A rich, loamy 
Geoirraphy and excellent for farming, may make 

good roads. v j t • 

very bad roads in wet weather or during 
the winter season. In the fertile prairies of the 
west, although the land is almost as level as a 
floor, the roads often become impassable. Where 
there are hills, the cost of hauling will be twice 
as much as in a level country, because only half the 
load can be hauled. But this idea does not seem 
to have been fully understood in America. Many 
of our roads run straight over hills, or through 


TKANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 121 


swamp land, which adds both to the difficulties of 
transportation and to the expense of keeping the 
roads in repair. 

The making of a good road requires scientific 
knowledge and skill, and is work that should be 
supervised by a trained engineer. But the methods 
of road building and repairing in the United States 
furnish an example of wastefulness of the people’s 
money that should be corrected. Something has 
been accomplished toward improving the condi¬ 
tion of our country roads where their construction 
and management have been placed in the hands of 
the county government, instead of being left un¬ 
der the control of the township, or of the imme¬ 
diate neighborhood. This helps to secure more 
uniformly good roads over a large area. It should 
also make it less difficult to secure competent 
men to supervise the work. The practice of 
allowing the farmers to work out their road tax 
should be abandoned, and the tax, paid in money, 
should be devoted to the employment of compe¬ 
tent engineers to supervise the work of con¬ 
struction. In those sections where the people 
have shown that they really want good roads. 
Improvement mucli progress has been made toward 
road makins:. getting them. The first thing neces¬ 
sary is to arouse public interest in the matter. 
That there has been so little interest in the past 
is due to ignorance of their importance to the 


122 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


entire conniiuiiity, and of the methods by which 
they may be secured. In the last few years the 
National Good Itoads Association has done much 
to arouse public interest and to secure legislation 
in many States. A good example of progress 
made is found in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, where 
many of the main roads leading into Cleveland 
have been paved with brick, and the work of 
construction is still going on. The farmers dt 
first object to such exiiensive pavements, but it 
has been demonstrated in Cuyahoga County and 
elsewhere that the greater first cost is made 
up in a few years by the larger loads and in the 
quicker time made in going to and from the 
city. 

In the beginning of our national history the 
question of road making became at once very 
Early high. important in connection with the set- 

ways left to 

the States. tleiiient ot tlic west and tlie preservation 
of the Union. Koads and canals were proposed in 
great numbers. Local governments were weak, 
especially in the west, and the question at ohde 
arose whether the national or the State govern¬ 
ment should aid in constructing highways. The 
only clauses in the Constitution that could be 
interpreted as giving the national government 
power to construct roads were those giving the 
power “ to establish post offices and post roads ”, 
” to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMIMUNICATION 123 


among the several States”, and to make war. 
But the national government was cautious about 
exercising powers not explicitly given to it, and 
the making of highways was left chielly to the 
States, or to private enterprise. Many turnpikes 
were built by private companies, for the use of 
which tolls were charged. 

The introduction of canals and, especially, of 
railroads caused the private turnpikes to become 
unprofitable, and the feeling grew that the 
country highways were a matter for local man¬ 
agement. But at the present time it is being 
seen that good country roads are a benefit, hot 
merely to the farmers living on them, nor even to 
the people of that county alone, but to the people 
of the whole State, including the towns and cities. 
If the farmers cannot get to town, the merchants 
suffer as well as the farmers. And if the retail 
merchants of the small towns lose trade, the effect 
is felt by the wholesale merchants of the large 
cities, by bankers, by the railroads, and in fact 

stale manape- every class of people in the State in 
mentof roads, qj, otlier. Soiiie of the States, 

mostly in the east, are therefore making a system¬ 
atic reform in road making. The movement is 
slowly spreading west. In New Jersey a State 
Highway Law was passed in 1892. It created a 
State Commissioner of Public Roads, and pro¬ 
vided that when two-thirds of the property owners 


124 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


along a road petition the county for improvements 
they shall be made. One-tenth of the cost is paid 
by the property owners along the road, one-third 
by the State, and the remainder by the people of. 
the county in which the improvement is made. 
The expense is thus distributed over the whole 
State, altliough the main part is borne by the 
immediate community. The work is done under 
the direction of a county engineer, but must be 
approved by the State Commission. Similar sys¬ 
tems have been adopted in other States. 

The one great example of road building by the 
United States government is the National, or 
The National Cumberland Road, which was begun at 

Cumberland, Maryland, 1806, and was 
ultimately completed to the Mississippi River. 
It afterward passed under the control of the 
States through which it ran, and thence was given 
over to the management of the counties. 

Road making, especially in an unsettled coun¬ 
try, is difficult, and the cost of transportation by 
River wagon is heavy. In the early days of 

transportation. , j , /> 

our country, therefore, water routes 
were always used when possible. The rivers were 
the natural highways into the west, and schemes 
were early proposed for their improvement, like 
that proposed by Washington for the improve¬ 
ment of the Potomac. The invention of the 
steamboat liy Robert Fulton in 1806 gave a great 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 125 


impetus to water transportation, and steamboats 
were soon plying the rivers, both east and west, 
as well as the Great Lakes. The rapid develop¬ 
ment of railways checked the use of the rivers, 
although they are still an important factor in tlie 
transportation system of our country. The com¬ 
merce of the Great Lakes has steadily increased, 
and is today of enormous proportions. 

A great deal has been done by State and 
national governments for tlie improvement of our 
River and rivers; by the national government 

harbor im¬ 
provement. because the rivers are important high¬ 
ways of interstate commerce. The River and 
Harbor Bill, passed every two years by Congress, 
involves one of the heaviest items of expense by 
the government, even to the point of extrava¬ 
gance. For example, $5,000,000 was spent in the 
course of ten or twelve years in improving the 
Missouri River above Kansas City, although there 
were no regular steamers plying there. Much is 
spent, also, upon the improvement of harbors 
along the sea-coast and on the Great Lakes. For 
the benefit of navigation on our coast the national 
government has estal)lished a coast survey, has 
deepened and otherwise improved harbors and 
canals,and has marked dangerous points with 
light-houses. 

The advantages of water communication were 
so great in the days before railroads that it was 


12G 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


early proposed to increase water routes by the 
construction of canals. Many canals were proposed 
to be built by the national government, 
such as the series of coastwise canals 
proposed by Albert Gallatin in Jefferson’s admin¬ 
istration. But there was great opposition to such 
improvements at national expense; and, as in 
the case of roads, it was left chiefly for the States 
and xirivate companies to undertake them. The 
most successful of the early canals built under 
State authority was the Erie Canal, connecting 
T.ake Erie with the Hudson River, and thus with 
the Atlantic. Its success aroused other States to 
similar enterprises, and soon the country was full 
of schemes for canal building. While some of 
these canals were successfully constructed and 
operated, most of them were not. Many men lost 
their fortunes by these schemes, and some States 
were involved heavily in debt. 

It was the coming of the railroads that caused 
the downfall of the canal schemes. But canals 
remain an important means of transportation 
pnder certain circumstances. The Erie Canal is 
still an important highway, and it is proposed to 
increase its usefulness by enlarging it. Then 
ocean vessels may carry cargoes directly from 
Chicago and other cities on the lakes to foreign 
lands. Much of the produce that is sent out from 
the northwest is bulky, and transportation by 


transportation and communication 127 


water is, on that account, much cheaper than by 
rail. The United States government has built a 
number of imx)ortant canals in recent times for 
the i)urpose of avoiding rapids in rivers, or to 
connect the Great Lakes. One of tlie greatest of 
these is the canal at Sault Ste. Marie, between 
Lake Superior, on the one hand, and Lakes Huron 
and Michigan, on tlie other. The greatest canal 
ever undertaken is tlie Panama Canal now in 
course of construction by the United States. It 
will be of world-wide importance. 

Steam railways revolutionized transportation. 
They quickly displaced most of the older turn¬ 
pikes and canals, and made travel rapid 

Railroads. 

beyond the imagination of the peoxile of 
earlier times. They rapidly covered the country 
with a network of tracks until, at the present 
time, the railways of the United States would 
encircle the globe eight and a half times, without 
counting second tracks and side tracks. The 
importance of the railroads in the building of our 
nation can hardly be overestimated. It is quite 
possible that the territory we now occupy could 
never have been included in a single nation 
if it were not for the railroads to bind its widely 
separated parts together. San Francisco and New 
York are today as close together as New York and 
Boston were in Washington’s time. Because of 
their great service to the country in this way. 


128 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


they have at various times been aided by both 
State and national governments. The national 
government gave to many States, in early times, 
large tracts of public land to aid in the work of 
construction. And when the great western roads 
were proposed, Congress gave about 100,000,000 
acres of land to aid in the enterprise. 

Railroads are not owned by the government in 
this country as they are in some European coun- 
Oovernmcnt tries, but by private corporations which 

control of 

railroads. receive charters, usually from the 
States, but sometimes from the national govern¬ 
ment. Most of the roads of the country have 
been concentrated in the hands of a very few pow¬ 
erful corporations, which thus places the control 
of the chief means of transportation in the hands 
of a few men. Under its power to regulate in¬ 
terstate commerce. Congress passed an interstate 
commerce law in 1887 which, among other things, 
created an Interstate Commerce Commission. It 
was given certain powers to regulate the inter¬ 
state business of railroads. Other laws enacted 
in 1903 and 1906 seek to prevent railroads from 
discriminating in their rates and otherwise in favor 
of some persons or localities as against others. 
The service performed by the railroads is of such 
a public character that they should be compelled 
to recognize the community interests as above 
their own private interests. It is thought by some 


TRANSPORTATION ANP COMMUNICATION 


129 


that this could be accomplished best by gov¬ 
ernment ownership of the railroads as in some 
other countries. 

Another mos,t important step in binding sepa¬ 
rate communities together, and especially in 

Electric Inter- bringing isolated communities into rela- 
urban lines. . 

tion With the larger centers of life, is 
the recent growth of electric interurban railways. 
Many little communities not heretofore touched 
by steam railways, or given by them inadequate 
service, have been brought into the stream of life 
of the larger community about them. There was 
a time not long ago when the life of the farmer 
was a life of isolation. He had few of the advan¬ 
tages of the city, and seldom came into intimate 
contact with the life of the world. But all this 
is rapidly being changed by the building of 
electric lines through the rural districts, together 
with the establishment of free rural mail delivery 
>and the extension of telephones into the country. 
By these means city, town, and rural populations 
are being bound more closely together. The peo¬ 
ple mingle more freely. What affects one for 
good or ill more quickly affects all. More and 
more common interests are developing. The whole 
country is becoming united more firmly into a 
single community. 

The question of transportation in cities is an 
important one, and presents difficulties not found 


130 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


in rural communities and small towns. First in 
importance is the street itself. All cities have 

Transportation ^ department of government to maii- 
incities. coiistructioii and repairing of the 

streets, and employ engineers who understand the 
principles of good street making. It is too often 
true, however, that street commissioners and other 
officers in control of the streets are appointed as a 
reward for political services rather than 
for fitness for the work. Too often 
large contracts for street making are let, through 
political favoritism, to men who are more inter¬ 
ested in the amount of money they can make out 
of it tlian in the welfare of the community. Buch 
contractors, and the officers of government who 
knowingly employ them, are enemies to the com¬ 
munity. 

The streets are for the use of the people. No 
one has a right to block them unnecessarily to the 
Biockinethe inconveiiieiice or danger of others. 

There are ordinances to prevent store¬ 
keepers and others from blocking the sidewalks 
with boxes or otherwise. But these ordinances 
are often violated, making the way of the pedes¬ 
trian botli difficult and dangerous, besides making 
the streets unsiglitly. In large cities the side¬ 
walks and streets are necessarily crowded, and a 
slight accident may block traffic completely for a 
time. Much of this could be avoided if each citi- 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 131 

zen carefully observed such common rules as that 
of keeping to the right, and not stopping in groups 
in the middle of the walk or roadway. There are 
usually ordinances to regulate these matters, and 
policemen are stationed at points where traffic 
is heavy to prevent unnecessary confusion. 

It is necessary to use the streets in cities for 
the laying of sewer, water and gas pipes, the 
stretching of telegraph, telephone, and 

Franchises. 

electric light wires, and the construction 
of street railways. But franchises for these pur¬ 
poses are granted on two conditions : first, definite 
services must be performed for the people; and, 
second, the natural use of the streets by vehicles 
and pedestrians must not be interfered with. 
But here again we often find the rights of the 
people disregarded, both by the companies which 
obtain the franchises, and by the government 
officials who grant them. Sometimes franchises 
are carelessly drawn up and give away privileges 
to companies without safe-guarding the rights of 
the people. But sometimes, also, the officers of 
government dishonestly and unpatriotically give 
away the people’s rights for private gain. The 
most unpatriotic man in the world is he who will 
sell the people’s rights for his own private gain. 
He is a traitor to his community. 

Life in cities has been almost revolutionized by 
the development of rapid transportation by 


132 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


electric trolley cars. In some of tlie largest 
cities there are elevated railways, upon whicli 
Rapid transit ^I'^iiis are rapidly driven by steam or 
in cities. electricity without tlie delays that are 
necessary in surface transportation. In New York 
there is a system of underground transportation. 
The regular steam railways run trains a few 
minutes apart between tlie center of large cities 
and the sulmrbs. In Chicago the Illinois Central 
Railroad alone carries annually about 15,000,000 
suburban passengers. The elevated roads of New 
York carry about 285,000,000 passengers each 
year. In Boston the consolidated lines carry over 
200,000,000 passengers annually. 

The city railways are owned and operated by 
private corporations under franchises. It has been 
Government pi’oposed that cities should acquire pos- 

ownership of 

railways. sessioii of their trans])ortation systems 
and should operate them themselves, as is done in 
many European cities. It is argued that the ser¬ 
vice could then be made just as good as the people 
want it, and the fares could lie reduced greatly. 
But it is said, in reply to this, that if city govern¬ 
ments cannot Avisely and honestly control the 
giving of franchises, and enforce their terms, how^ 
much less likely w'ould they be to manage the 
entire business wisely and honestly. 

The development of means of rapid trans])orta- 
tion has done much to inqirove the conditions of 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION i;i3 


life in cities. It lias relieved the crowding in 
tlieir centers. It has made it possible for fain- 
Effect of rapid ilies to seek homes away from the 

transit upon 

city life. noise and smoke and lieat, wliile the 
workers of tlie family may still reach their places 
of business easily. Even those who are compelled 
to live in the heart of the city may more easily 
reach the country for refreshment and strength. 

In community life there must also be an exchange 
of ideas as well as a means of transporting goods 
Communication people. The manufacturer must 

of ideas. Rnow how iiiucli aiid wluit kiiids of goods 
the people want and what they will be willing to 
pay for it. He must also know^ where he can get 
his materials for manufacture most advantage¬ 
ously. In a large country like ours the people in 
sections far removed from each other, like New 
England and California, would be likely to develop 
very great differences in manner of speech, in 
dress, in ways of thinking and doing, and in forms 
of government, if they were not in constant com¬ 
munication with each other. The exchange of 
ideas is partly kept up by means of transportation. 
There is a constant mingling of the people 
of different sections. But this is not all. We 
have, besides, our postal system, the tele¬ 
graph and telephone, and the newspaper. When 
an important event happens it ds at once 
flashed to every part of the land and within a 


134 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


few hours, at most, it is laid at our doors in the 
the columns of a newspaper. 

The Constitution gives Congress power to create 
post offices and post roads, and the post office system 

has existed from the beginning under 

Postal system. in-, • i 

the complete control of the national gov¬ 
ernment. At hrst the mails were usually carried 
on horseback, sometimes by boys, or by old men 
who “whiled away the hours by knitting woollen 
mittens and stockings” along the way. At the 
close of the Revolution “ letters were sent to Bos¬ 
ton [from New York] thrice in a week during the 
summer months, and twice in a week during the 
winter. Six days were passed on the road.” 
“Letters sent out from Philadelphia spent five 
weeks in winter going a distance now passed over in 
a single afternoon.” Out of this small beginning 
has developed the extensive post office system 
which we enjoy today, without often realizing the 
important service it performs for us. 

In some countries the government also controls 
the telegraph. But in our country it is owned and 
Teieuraphand managed by private corporations. So 
telephone. great is the service performed by it that 
it is hard to see how life could go on without this 
means of almost instantaneous communication be¬ 
tween all parts of our own country and with the 
outside world.. The telephone has had a similar 
effect upon the life of cities especially, and is now 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 135 


aiding ill bringing the farmer into connection 
with the city. But communication by mail, 
or by telegraph, or by telephone, would be 
limited to a comparatively few individuals if it 
were not for the additional service of the newspa¬ 
pers and other publications which serve as the dis¬ 
tributors of information of interest and value to 
all classes. For one or two cents a citizen may 
put himself in possession of the news of all im¬ 
portant happenings tliroughout the world during 
the preceding twelve or twenty-four hours. The 
inlluence of this in creating common interests 
throughout the community is very important. 

Each one of us is constantly taking more 

Newspapers. 

and more of the world’s interests into his 
own life and being broadened by it. We are think¬ 
ing together and acting together as a community 
because of the growth of these various means 
of communication. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Look up the difficulties of travel and transportation in our 
country in the beginning of the nineteenth century, and their 
effects upon the life of the time. 

2. Are the geographical conditions favorable to the making 
of good roads in your community? What is the condition of 
the country roads in your neighborhood during the winter? 
What effect does it have upon the life of the farmer? Upon the 
life of the town people? 

3. Who has control over the making and repairing of the 
country roads in your community? How is the expense of 
keeping them in repair met? Do the farmers work out their 


136 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


road tax? Are experienced persons employed to oversee 
the work of construction and repair? Has there l)een 
any advance made in recent years in the direction of good 
roads? 

4. Is there any agitation among the people of your com¬ 
munity in favor of better roads? Do the farmers want 
them? Are they willing to pay more than they now are 
paying for them? Why? 

5. If there are any improved country roads in your neighbor¬ 
hood, find out how they are constructed. 

6. Look up the history of road building in your State. 
Have there been any State roads? If so, locate them on the 
map. Is your State government now taking any steps to im¬ 
prove the condition of the country roads? 

7. Make a report on the history and influence of the National 
lioad. Did it have any particular influence upon the settlement 
of your State? 

'8. Give an account of the use of rivers in your State for 
transportation. To what extent are they used now? 

9. Is there any river improvement going on in your State? 
By whom is it being done. State or national govern¬ 
ment? 

10. Make a report of the work of the United States Coast 
Survey. 

11. Make a report on the building and influence of the Erie 
Canal. 

12. Jjook up the history of canal building in your State. Have 
there been any successful canals operated there? Are any of 
them still in operation? 

13. Eeport on the purpose and history of the Panama Canal. 
What arrangements did our government have to make with 
other nations in regard to it? Of what advantage will it be 
to the world? What special advantages will the United States 
derive from it? 

14. Eeport on the history of railroad building in your 
State. 

15. If there are interurban electric lines in your neighbor¬ 
hood, report what influence they have had upon the life of the 
farmers. Upon the prosperity of the cities. 

16. ■ How does your city government manage the building 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNI(L\TION 137 


and repairinf]^ of the stnx'ts? If yon wanted tlie street upon 
which yon live paved, how wonld yon set ahont it? How 
woidd tlie expense be met? 

17. What kinds of pavements arc used in yonr city? 
What are considered the best? Report on the metliod of pav¬ 
ing a street. 

18. Are the ordinances respc'cting the blocking of sidewalks 
observed in yonr community? 

11). If yon have a street railway in yonr commnnity, find 
ont what the terms of the franchise are with reference to the 
use of the streets. Also with reference to the paving of the 
streets throngh which the tracks rnn. Are the people getting 
as good service from the street railways as they should? If not, 
why? 

30. Debate the question, “Street railways should be owned 
and operated by the city.” 

21. AVhat eliects have street railways had upon life in your 
community? 

22. Report on rural free mail delivery in yonr neighbor- 
liood. 

23. R(‘port on the organization of a large newspaper for the 
gathering and distril)ution of information. 


CHAPTER XIIL 


HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SAT¬ 
ISFY HIS DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE. 

In 1607 the first permanent Englisli colony 
was founded in Virginia. Sixty-four years after 
Governor its fouiidiiig Govemor Berkeley reported 
fdiSiSi.**" to the king on tlie condition of the col¬ 
ony, and among other things he said: ‘‘I thank 
God there are no free schools nor printing, 
and I hope we shall not have these hundred 
years.” A statement like this from one in 
authority seems strange to us now, when one of 
our chief causes of pride is our system of free 
schools, and our busy printing presses. It is a 
good example of the belief of despotic rulers that 
very much knowledge on the part of the people is 
dangerous. It is true that a despotic government 
cannot exist in a nation where the mass of the 
people are educated. What Governor Berkeley 
wanted to see was a colony of loyal subjects of the 
king, contented because ignorant of their rights 
and powers, and witliout ambition to extend their 


138 


EDUCATION. 


DIO 


liberties l)y revolting against tlie government of 
the king and his officers. 

Fortunately for the growth of a free and self- 
governing people, Governor Berkeley’s ideas were 

The New prevail thronghont America. 

England Idea, years froiii the founding 

of Virginia, another group of colonists came to 
America and founded Massachusetts. Here a law 
was passed providing that in every town of fifty 
householders an elementary school was to he 
established, and in every town of one hundred 
householders, a grammar school. New England 
grew under a system of free schools, free discus¬ 
sion, and a free press, and because of these things 
took the lead, one hundred years after Berkeley’s 
time, in throwing olf the despotic rule of 
England. 

We must first look to the family as the most 
important arrangement for the education of the 
The family citizen. The chief purpose of the family 
and education, fg to bring up the children. This means 

not merely to protect them and to provide for 
their physical wants, l)ut to equip them with a 
fund of knowledge and experience that will be 
useful to them in their life in the community. 
But if education were left entirely to the family, 
it would be very inadequately and unequally pro¬ 
vided for. A large proportion of the citizens of 
America are foreigners. They and their children 


140 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


would make little headway in acquiring the 
knowledge that makes them intelligent citizens if 
it were left for their families to accomplish. The 
children of wealthy families might be highly 
The family educated by means of books and travel 
suffkient. and by the employment of private 

teachers at home; while the children of wage 
earners would liave to get along with very little. 
In colonial Virginia, where there were '‘no free 
schools”, and where Governor Berkeley hoped 
there would not be "for these hundred years”, 
education was largely carried on by private 
teachers. The result was a small, highly educated 
class and a very large, uneducated class of citi¬ 
zens. But it is not a high degree of education on 
the part of a few that makes a republic like ours 
great. It is rather a fairly generous amount of 
knowledge permeating all ranks and classes. 
Since the community is to be the gainer by it, the 
community must afford a means of education that 
will be within the reach of all. 

As was stated at the beginning of this chapter, 
Massachusetts, at an early time, recognized the 
Education a importance of a generally educated peo- 
E?olfr Connecticut made a similar pro- 

Kovernment. after. Other colonies and 

sections of the country were slower about pro¬ 
viding for the general education of the people, 
but in the course of time the Massachusetts way 


EDUCATION 


141 


lias become characteristic of the American com¬ 
munity. One of the foundation ideas of our free 
country is that there shall be the greatest possi¬ 
ble freedom of thought, and the most widespread 
information among the people. After the Revo¬ 
lutionary War, when the Ordinance of 1787 was 
enacted by Congress for the government of the 
western lands, it provided that “religion, morality, 
and knowledge being necessary to good govern¬ 
ment and the happiness of mankind, schools and 
the means of education shall be forever encour¬ 
aged.” When new States were created out of this 
western land, it was provided that each one 
should reserve one section out of every township 
for school purposes. States admitted after 1848 
were to reserve two sections out of each township. 
Thus began the public school system in the great 
west. In the law of 1906, providing for the 
admission of Indian Territory and Oklahoma as a 
State, it is provided that the proceeds from all 
public lands shall be used for school purposes. 

The duty of education falls upon the State, and 
not upon the national government. The State 
Education In li^s usually left the matter largely in the 
!he state and hands of the local communities. For this 
ernments. reasoii WO find a good deal of variety in 
its organization and management. But usually, 
in rural communities, the township or county is 
divided into school districts. If the district is 


142 


TlfE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


small it lias but one school. But sometimes the 
township, or even the county, constitutes a single 
district, and then there are probably several 
schools under a single management. In some 
cases the school business is attended to directly 
by the voters of the district who assemble at 
stated times for the purpose. But usually it is 
placed in the hands of one or more eommitteemen or 
trustees^ who are elected by the people. In most 
Township cases all the schools of a county are 

and county 

management, united Under the management of a 
hoards which sometimes consists of the several 
township trustees. The board of trustees looks 
after the school liuildings, employs teachers, and 
often selects the text-books to be used. In order 
to secure uniformity and excellence in all the 
schools of the county there is usually a county 
superintendent, appointed by the board, or elected 
by the people, whose business it is to supervise 
the actual work of the schools. 

There are some weak points in the organization 
and management of the district schools, that have 
only in part been overcome. 

(1). It is difficult to get good teacliers. The 
salaries in rural schools cannot be large, and 
teachers wlio show especial ability are drawn off 
to other localities, or to city schools, where the 
salaries are larger. Most of the teachers in the 
country schools are not making teaching their spe- 


EDUCATION 


143 


cial work, but are using it merely as a stepping 
stone to something else. 

(2) . The schools are poorly organized. The 

terms are too short, chiefly because the small com- 
DefectsJnthe caiiiiot alFoi’d to pay for a longer 

Swotof"** term. Pupils of all ages and all stages 

country sohools. ej i ^ • 

01 advancement are grouped together in 
one room, often in the same classes, and all 
taught by the same teacher. This defect has in 
some places been partly overcome by consolidating 
the schools of the township in one centrally located 
building, where they can be graded, and where 
several teachers can be employed under the super¬ 
vision of a principal. A single township high 
school is often secured by this method of consoli¬ 
dation, whereas the separate districts could not 
support one. The difficulty in the way of consoli¬ 
dation has been the distance the pupils have to 
travel from the remote parts of the township. 
But this has been met in some States 
by providing means of conveyance at public 
expense. 

(3) . It is often difficult to find competent men 
to serve as trustees. Through lack of training 
and experience in educational matters, their judg¬ 
ment in the selection of teachers and text-books 
and other equipment is often at fault. School offi¬ 
cers are too often elected or appointed on political 
grounds. That is to say, they are chosen, not be- 


144 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


cause of special fitness for the position, but be¬ 
cause they have influence with political leaders 
who manage the elections. In such cases 
the elficiency of the schools is bound to 
suffer. 

In the cities the organization of the schools can 
be more perfectly efl'ected. The large number 
of children makes it possible to grade 

city schools. ^ ° 

them from the primary classes up to the 
high school. The compactness of the population 
makes it easier to supervise the work of all the 
schools alike and to secure unity throughout the 
school system. Better buildings, better equi| 3 - 
ment, and better teachers can be alTorded. The 
The school scliools are under the management of a. 

school board, the members of which are 
elected by the people. In large cities it is possi¬ 
ble to find men who are fitted by interest and 
training for the responsible position of school com¬ 
missioner. It is quite common to allow women 
to become members of school boards, and to vote 
for its members. City school boards are usually 
given wide powers in school matters, and act more 
or less independently of the other branches of 
the government, in order to secure freedom from 
political influence. 

The school board appoints a superintendent. The 
salaries paid to superintendents in the larger 
cities are large enough to attract able men to 


EDUCATION 


145 


the work. They are not necessarily, nor usually, 

chosen from the community in which they serve, 

Thesuperln* but are sought for throughout the 
tendent. , , 

country, wherever the best man can 

be found. 

The school board or the superintendent appoints 
the teachers and prescribes what text-books shall 
be used. Teachers must-have certain qualifica¬ 
tions prescribed hj law, and are usually required 
to pass examinations to show their preparation 
for their work. In some cities text-books are 
furnished free to the pupils. 

Conditions of life in cities differ so from condi¬ 
tions in the country that the State allows cities 
state control of great liberty in organizing and manag- 
educatfon. their school systems. But the 

schools of the smaller towns and in the country 
are usually controlled in their general methods by 
a central State authority. There is a State board 
of education, and often a State superintendent. The 
State superintendent is chosen sometimes by elec¬ 
tion, sometimes by appointment. In either case 
there is danger that political motives may enter 
unduly into the choice. 

In some States the text-books used are pre¬ 
scribed for the whole State by the State board of 
education. The choice of books, as of teachers, 
should be made on the ground of excellence 
alone and not for the favor or profit of 


146 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


State 

universities. 


any person. In some cases text-books are 
furnished free to the pupils at the expense of 
the State. 

A number of the States provide State univer¬ 
sities for the higher education of their young men 
and women. These universities afford 
' not only a broad collegiate education 
that will better fit anyone for life in the commu¬ 
nity, but they also offer special professional train¬ 
ing for the law, for medicine, and for engineering. 
Attendance upon the State universities is usually 
free to citizens of the State. But their excel¬ 
lence is so great that they usually attract students 
from other States, who are required to pay 
tuition. 

While education is thus chiefly in the hands of 
the State, the national government is not wholly 
, inactive in the matter. We have seen 
ZiJn?i gov. ^^ow it gave a start to the educational 
work of the States by the donation of 
tracts of land. In addition to this it has estab¬ 
lished a Bureau of Education, at the head of 
which is the United States Oornmissioner of 
Education. His duties are chiefly to collect 
information on educational matters, to publish 
this information in reports and bulletins, and to 
exercise an influence upon educational move¬ 
ments throughout the country. The national 
government maintains military and naval schools, 


education. 


147 


schools for the Indians, and schools for the city of 
Washington. 

The cost of the public schools of the United 
States is very great. They are one of the largest 
Cost of items of expense to the government 

education. . . ' 

amounting to about $231,000,000 annu¬ 
ally. Of this amount only $3,000,000 is expended 
by the national government, $44,000,000 by the 
State governments, and $184,000,000 by the local 
communities. This amounts to about $15.00 a 
year for every child enrolled in the schools. 

Why should the community expend so much for 
the education of its jmung people? Do they thus 
Why the receive freely from the community that 
fSsThls* they alone may benefit by it? Oommu- 
e.\pease. iievei* oiie-sided like this. 

The community gives to the individual because 
it expects to receive something in return. 
If the individual alone were to profit by it he 
would be left to get his education as best he 
could at his own expense. The child is educat¬ 
ed by the community not that he may get 
more out of life (although it is true that he 
may), but that he may be able to give 
more to the well-being of the community. Our 
nation is annually investing millions of dol¬ 
lars in its young people, expecting to get its 
returns in greatly increased efficiency in the 
services rendered to it by its citizens. 


148 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Training for citizensliip is accomplished by the 
school chielly in two ways: 

1. Through a course of instruction that will 
unfold to the pupil his various relations to life, 
How the that will give him a certain amount of 

school trains . . -nT ^ i- 

for citizenship, information, and that will develop his 
powers of clear thinking. We usually think of 
civics and history as the two subjects intended to 
train for citizenship. But every subject in the 
course of study should contribute to the same 
end. Language, literature, mathematics and 
science, as well as history, are intended to 
broaden the view of the individual, to develop an 
all round manhood and womanhood, to cultivate 
the different desires and powers in such a way as 
to fit the individual for life in the community. 

2. The second way in which tlie school should 
train for citizenship is in the life of the school 
itself. The school is a community (see definition, 
page 7). Further, the school community is a part 
of the larger community about it, and enters 
directly into its life. It is a mistake to think 
that the school is merely a place to prepare for 
life. It is life. School children from six to 
eighteen or twenty years of age are not simply 
getting ready to live, but they are living, and are 
doing just what the community expects them to 
be doing during their time of life. And by so 
doing they are contributing to the welfare of 


EDUCATION 


149 


the community as well as receiving a benefit 
from it. 

People learn to do things by practice. All 
the principles-of community life found in the 
The principles outside of the school are also 

mefound'in^ fouiid witliiii the school. Here are 
grouped together a number of people 
with differing desires and motives, but all pos¬ 
sessing certain common interests. Here are 
probably represented several different nationali¬ 
ties going through the process of being molded 
into Americans by common instruction and by 
association with each other (see page 51). Here 
are children from all classes in the community, 
all on an exactly equal footing before the laws of 
the school, and with exactly equal opportunities 
of showing their worth and winning advancement 
by their own efforts. This is the real idea of 
democracy that we are trying to realize in our 
national and local communities. If we ever do 
realize it perfectly, it will be largely through the 
influence of the public schools. Here in the 
school is found the necessity for industry and 
productive work; for division of tasks and united 
action, under direction, for the common good. 
Here is seen the necessity for organization and 
government in order that the greatest good for 
the greatest number may be secured. And here 
it can hardly escape notice that more or less 


150 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


responsibility rests upon each member for the 
welfare of all; that failure or wrong-doing on the 
part of one not only brings disaster to himself, 
but tends to disturb the harmony and well-being 
of all. Certain phases of school life tend to 
develop certain qualities of good citizenship; as 
in athletics courage, decisiveness in action, and 
the spirit of square dealing are emphasized. And 
so in the life of the school liahits are formed by 
practice that will work good or ill by being per¬ 
petuated in the life of the larger community 
outside of the school. 

Education is not only a privilege; it is a duty, 
because every citizen owes it to his community to 
Education equip 111 111 Self to render the best citizen- 

®ship possible. This is recognized in 
many of the States by tlie passage of the compul¬ 
sory education laws, requiring every child to attend 
school during a certain number of years. In some 
cities there are special schools for truants, where 
special methods are adopted to keep the pupils 
in school. As we pass from the first to the eighth 
grades, however, we find that large numbers drop 
out each year for various reasons, and only from 
five to ten per cent of those who enter the first 
grades pass into the high school. Of these not 
more than ten per cent graduate. This fact has 
raised the question whether the whole community 
should be asked to support the high schools which 


EDUCATION 


151 


are attended by so few, and which cost a great 
deal more in proportion than the grade schools. 
Is the While the average cost of education 

hijrh school 

Justifiable? throughout the United States is about 
$15.00 for each pupil enrolled, the cost of the 
high schools in cities is about $60.00 for every 
pupil enrolled in them. Whatever the answer to 
this question may be, it is certainly true that the 
more education a person receives, the greater is 
his duty to the community. The community has 
a right to expect more from an educated man than 
from an uneducated one; more from a high school 
graduate than from one who has not attended high 
school. A liberal education is not intended to 
relieve a person from hard work, but to fit 
him for more and better work than he could 
do otherwise. 

We have given our attention, in this chapter, 
to the public school system of our country as a 
means of satisfying the desire for knowledge. But 
it must not be supposed that this is all the com¬ 
munity does for this purpose. There are thou¬ 
sands of private schools scattered over the country, 
especially in the cities. There are parochial 
schools, that is, schools managed by certain 
churches, as in the case of the Roman Catholic 
church. There are many colleges supported by 
gifts from public spirited citizens, or under the 
management of some religious denomination. 


m 


the community and the citizen 


There are schools for the deaf and dumb, and for 
the-blind, supported by the State. We must not 
forget the thousands of libraries all over the 
country, and especially the public libraries that 
other are supported at public expense and are 

inSutions. for the free use of the citizens. These 
are a valuable ally of the public schools, and are 
sometimes managed by the school board in cities. 
Many of the States support free libraries, and at 
Washington there is the great Congressional 
library, a national institution. In addition to 
these there are many scientific and art mu¬ 
seums, [supported at public expense. There are 
also many associations, or societies, of all kinds 
that are educational in character. When we con¬ 
sider these countless educational arrangements of 
our country, we cannot help being impressed with 
the strong desire for knowledge that is prevalent, 
and the variety of means that are provided to sat¬ 
isfy this desire. 

In the colonial days of New England the town¬ 
meeting was one of the greatest educational 
^ ^ , forces. Here the people gathered to- 

Freedom of x x o 

pSSi'andoV gether to discuss matters of common 
assembiaee. interest. Every citizen was educated 

On matters of public importance. This wide-spread 
information is very important in a republic like 
ours. This love of meeting together to discuss im¬ 
portant questions, or to hear them discussed by 


EDUCATION 


153 


well informed persons, is very striking in America. 
In these days tlie enliglitenment of the people on 
public matters is made miicli easier than formerly 
by the service of the newspaper and other regular 
publications, that gather up the news from all tlie 
world and distribute it at our doors almost as soon 
as the events happen, by means of the telegraph 
and other means of rapid communication. We 
have only to compare ourselves witli some of the 
more beniglited countries of the world, like Rus¬ 
sia, where men maybe sent into exile for express¬ 
ing their tlionglits too freely, where public meet¬ 
ings of tlie people are largely forbidden, and 
where no news may be printed in the newspapers 
until it has been examined by government officials, 
to be thankful that our Constitution provides that 
'' Congress shall make no law .... abridging the 
freedom of speech, or of the press, or the 
right of the people freely to assemlile.” 
(Amend. I.) 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Find what you can about the school life of the child in 
colonial New England. In colonial Virginia. 

2. Find what you can about the first schools in your own 
community. How did they difler from the schools of today? 
Length of the school term? Did all children attend? Were 
they private schools, or public? Where did they get teachers? 
How well were the teachers pai<l? 

3. What does the family do for the education of the 
children that the school cannot do? What does the school do 
that the family cannot? 


154 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


4. Ij>ok up the history of the schools in your State. M hat 
does your State constitution provide with rej 2 ;ard to educa¬ 
tion? 

6. Describe the organization of the schools in your township 
and county. 

6. If tlie schools in your community are graded, when and 
why did the grading take place? Show how the graded system 
is better than the ungraded system. 

7. Are the country schools consolidated in any part of your 
State? If so, how does it work? 

8. If you live in a city, describe in detail the organization of 
the city schools. Describe the Board of Education, number, 
term of office, powers, etc. 

9. What are the qualifications prescrilml for teachers in 
your community? How are the teachers selected? 

10. Describe the work of the State Board of Education and 
that of the State Superintendent in your State. 

11. How are the school books selected in your State? In 
yqur city? Are they free to the children ? What advantages 
and disadvantages result from free school books? 

12. Would ‘a national university, supported by the govern¬ 
ment, be permitted by the Constitution? (See Report of the 
Commissioner of Education, 1898-99, vol. II, page 662). 

13. What do the public schools cost your city? Your county? 
Your State? 

14. Compare the school community of which you are a mem- 
l)er with the community outside of the school, as suggested on 
p. 149 of this chapter. 

15. How does the government of your school differ from the 
government of the city or town in which you live? Why the 
difference? Would it be wise to make the government of the 
school more like that of the city? Give reasons. 

16. AVhat are the compulsory education lliwe of your State? 
How are truants looked after in your community? 

17. What reasons can you give why the high school should 
be maintained at the expense of the community, in spite of the 
small proportional attendance and the large proportional 
cost? 

18. Make a list of the educational agencies in your commu¬ 
nity outside of the public school. 


I 


CHAPTER XIV. 

HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE C'lTIZEN TO 
SATISFY HIS DESIKE FOR BEAUTIFUL 
SURROUNDINGS. 

Tn one important way the growth of communi¬ 
ties has tended to destroy the beautiful surround- 
ings of man. It is a misfortune of 
civilization that much of the natural 
beauty of the landscape must disappear 
before it. The forest and llower-clothed prairie are 
transformed into farms and building sites. The 
hills are cut away for the resources they contain. 
The streams are lined Avith ugly and noisy fac¬ 
tories, and clogged with refuse. The sky is 
obscured with smoke. 

But the community, acting sometimes through 
the government and sometimes in other ways. 
Unnecessary niay prevent a great deal of unnecessary 
natural beauty, destruction of the beauty of nature. 
The wasteful destruction of forests is now being 
checked by education on the subject, and by the 
establishment of forestry bureaus, by State and 
national governments. Needless pollution of 

155 


156 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


streams may be cliecked by State laws, and their 
natural beauty in a measure preserved by pre¬ 
venting dilapidated* and untidy premises along 
their banks in cities, and in some cases by con¬ 
verting their shores into parks. Sentiment may 
be aroused among the boys, in the school and 
otherwise, against the killing of birds. Much 
natural scenery may be preserved by the creation 
of national and State parks, as in the case of 
the Yellowstone and Yosemite. The national com¬ 
munity should call upon its government to 
prevent the conversion of Niagara Falls from one 
of the great wonders of nature into a mere sluice 
for the turning of mill wheels, as is now threat¬ 
ened. 

But if natural beauty tends to disappear before 
the growth of communities, the opportunity for 


art increases. The accumulation of 
wealth through community effort finds 
one of its uses in the construction of 


Community 
life creates 
opportunities 
for art. 


beautiful homes and imposing business blocks, 
in founding art galleries, and in a thousand 
other artistic ways of which the community gets 
the advantage. Religious organizations, and or¬ 
ganizations of other kinds, grace the community 
with beautiful churches and other structures. 
Schools cultivate the taste for beautiful things, 
and the people are taught how to enjoy life in 
ways that they could not if they lived in isolation. 


CIVIC BEAUTY. 


157 


The place to begin beautifying the community 
is in the liome. The citizen who is careless about 
Beauty in appearance of his own liome is 

the home. almost sure to have little interest in the 
appearance of the rest of the community. A 
home that is unlovely takes away from the enjoy¬ 
ment of all who see it. A family has no more 
right to do this than it has to allow conditions 
about the home that threaten the health of the 
neighbors. No one has any more right to keep 
his yard untidy than he has to appear habitually 
before people with untidy person. People have 
not the right to do as they please in such matters, 
for in them they are contributing to the happiness 
or unhappiness of others. 

The first essential to beauty is neatness and 
orderliness. But it is usually possible to do more 
than merely to keep the premises clean and in or¬ 
der. Grass can usually be made to cover bare 
ground, or to take the place of weeds. There is 
almost always a spot for vines and fiowers to grow, 
if it is only in window boxes. It is wonderful 
what a transformation has often taken place even 
among the crowded dwellings of the poor in the 
heart of cities, by the introduction of vines 
over the fences, a flower bed in the small 
rear yard, and boxes of growing plants at the 
windows. 

The practice of thus adorning the dwelling 


158 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


place is contagious, and spreads from home to 
The practice of liomo, and from neighborliood to neigh- 
KSda'' horhood. It has sometimes happened 
that the dwellers in the tenement districts of 
cities vie with each other to see who can make 
the prettiest window ])ox, or the most attractive 
back yard, when they once get the idea of how to 
do it from some of their more enterprising neigh- 
]x)rs. And you know how quickly, in the resi¬ 
dence portions of cities, one well kept lawn in a 
neighborhood is followed by others until whole 
squares and whole streets present an unbroken 
view of beauty. 

It is wonderful how much children can do 
toward making the community beautiful in this 
Th..pp.r,«»ity I" Cleveland there is a Home 

of Children. ' Grardeiiiiig Association, which works 
chielly through the school children, and has 
transformed home Awards, school grounds, and 
vacant lots from barren and disorderly spots, in 
many cases, into beautiful flower and vegetable 
gardens. This Association early learned that 
“the easiest and surest way to results is through 
the enthusiasm of youth.” In most phases of 
community life we usually think that active citi¬ 
zenship is for men and women, and that the most 
that the children can do is to prepare for this 
active work. But in the beautifying of the com¬ 
munity, in which a high type of citizenship can 


CIVIC BEAUTY. 


159 


be shown, the children can take an active and 
prominent part, and are doing so in many com¬ 
munities. Through this work that is done by the 
school children practically every home in the com¬ 
munity is reached and garden spots spring up in 
every section of the city. 

It is appropriate that the school and the home 
should work together in this matter. The school 
Beauty In buildiiigs Scattered throughout a city, 
the school. couiitry districts, should 

be centers of pride in their neighborhoods because 
of their beauty. .Happily, communities are be¬ 
ginning to realize this, and the architecture of 
schools is improving. But even if the buildings 
are old and ugly, their surroundings can be made 
beautiful in most cases, and in this the children 
can have a part. The work of the Cleveland Home 
Gardening Association began with the improve¬ 
ment of a school yard in the heart of the city. 
The movement spread from family to family, and 
from ward to ward of the city, and finally 
extend to other cities in Ohio and adjacent 
States. 

A city is judged by the appearance of its streets 
perhaps more than in any other way, unless it is 
Beauty In by the appearance of its homes. The 
the street. passes iiaturally from one to the 

other. There are people who will keep their 
premises neat down to the street line, but who 


1()0 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

will allow the weeds to grow, and the grass to be 
uiitrimined along the roadway in front, because 
that is public property. The street is public prop¬ 
erty. But that means that each citizen has a 
share in it. Every citizen has a right to its use, 
and a right to expect that it will be kept in good 
repair and good order. But he also has a share of 
the responsibility for keeping it so. There was 
a time in certain cities when each householder 
was required to keep the street directly adjacent 
to his property swept and in good order. At first 
this was done by the householder himself, or by 
his servant. The next step was to employ some 
one to do it for him. Then a group of neighbors 
would unite in employing some one to do it for 
the neighborhood, or for the whole street. In the 
course of time it was found that the work could 
be done more economically and better by placing 
it all under the direction of a central authority, 
and to have a body of men to give their whole 

Responsibility of The govemmeiit then took 

the citizen. charge of the work for the citizens. 

The expense was met by taxing the householders 
who benefited by the work. By this series of steps 
l)y which the work of street cleaning was shifted 
from the individual householder to the central gov¬ 
ernment of the community, the householder has 
come to feel, in many cases, that he has also 
shifted the responsibility. But the employer is 


CIVIC BEAUTY 


161 


responsible for the work of those whom he em¬ 
ploys. 

In city communities good pavements are perhaps 
the first essential to beautiful streets. Their 
beauty consists chiefly in their smooth- 

Pavements. 

ness and cleanliness. Holes and un¬ 
even places are unsightly as well as unsafe. A 
rough pavement also adds to the noise of a city, 
which is necessarily great, but which could be 
greatly reduced in most cases. The desire for the 
„, beautiful may be satisfied as much 

through the ear as through the eye. 
Noises are often our safe-guards against danger. 
This is the excuse for gongs on street cars and fire 
engines, bells on bicycles, and whistles on locomo¬ 
tives. But the noise in most of our large cities is 
unnecessarily great and trying. Cobblestone pave¬ 
ments add tenfold to the noise of a street, and 
have almost passed out of use. In some cities 
ordinances exist to decrease tbe amount of noise, 
as where iron pipes must be wrapped before 
they are hauled through the streets, where 
the shrill whistle of interurban cars is for¬ 
bidden within the limits of cities, or where 
the calling of hucksters and newsboys is forbidden. 

In the matter of clean streets, as in so many 
other things, prevention is better than cure. 
Refuse is often swept or thrown into the streets, 
or paper strewn along them that should be disposed 


1G2 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


of in other ways. Ordinances often exist for- 
utierinif bidding such unnecessary littering of 
the streets. streets, but they are in the class 

of regulations commonly disregarded. In some 
cities boxes are provided on the street corners to 
receive waste paper and other matter. But care 
must be taken that such boxes shall not them¬ 
selves be unsightly. 

It has been said by some observing persons that 
school children are largely responsible for the 
unsightly appearance of our streets from the scat¬ 
tering of scraps of paper. It may not be true that 
a school pupil is any more inclined to throw scraps 
in the streets than other people. But it is true 
that school children have unusual temptation, as 
they come from school with an accumulation of 
papers that they no longer want. And their large 
numbers make possible a good deal of paper scat¬ 
tering in a few minutes. If children can do a 
great deal toward beautifying the community by 
gardening at home and on the school grounds, 
they can also do a great deal to prevent an 
unsiglitly appearance by refraining from throwing 
papers. Habits formed in school go a long way in 
such matters. Boys and girls who scatter scraps 
of paper in the school room and halls, will do the 
same thing on the streets and in other public 
places. 

Among the most beautiful objects in nature are 


CIVIC BEAUTY 


163 


trees. They are also among the objects that have 
Trees most recklessly sacrificed before 

growing communities. Nothing adds 
more to the attractiveness and beauty of a village 
or a city than shaded lawns, and tree-arched 
streets. What is more pleasant than a country 
road lined with beautiful trees? 

The trees of many communities are sulfering 
from the ravages of insects and parasites. The 
government is doing a great deal toward investi¬ 
gating ways and means to destroy the tree pests, 
and to acquaint the people with them. But the 
trees have other enemies than those in insect 
form. They have enemies among men, to whom 
they would contribute so much in health and 
pleasure. 

In the first place, men clear away fine trees, 
sometimes necessarily, but often unnecessarily. 
Destruction make way for so-called “improve- 

ments”. Often magnificent trees are 
sacrificed in order that an ordinary looking house 
may be built at a particular spot. Oftentimes a 
man’s home would be improved a hundred-fold in 
a^pp0arance, if he should leave the trees, and 


place the house further back, or to one side. A 
great deal of sameness is produced in our streets, 
and an opportunity for a display of artistic taste 
lost, by building our houses too much alike, and 
all at exactly the same distance from the street. 


1()4 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

without regard to the nature of the lots or the 
disposition of the trees and other natural features 
upon them. In the second place we do not take 
sufficient care to replace trees that die, or that 
are necessarily cut down. Trees are of compara¬ 
tively slow growth, and this may be one reason 
why householders hesitate to plant them, fearing 
that they may never get the benefit of them. 
But this is a lack of community spirit. Arbor 
Day affords an opportunity for children to do 
something in tliis connection. The systematic 
planting of trees on this day not only helps to 
beautify the community at once, but is a splendid 
lesson in citizenship. In some European cities it 
is required by law that every tree that dies, or is 
removed, unless removed to prevent crowding, 
must be replaced by another. 

Another enemy to the tree, and therefore to the 
community, is the ignorant tree trimmer. Trees 
The tree are trimmed too iiiucli. It is often done 

trimmer. i i . 

by well-meaning, but inexperienced per¬ 
sons, with the idea of improving appearances. 

There are also “professional tree trimmers”, 

who sometimes know nothing about the habits 
of trees, and have no idea of beauty, but who are 
after the money they can make from their work, 
and impose upon equally ignorant property own¬ 
ers. Of course there are times when trees must 
be tiimmed, and there are times when they must 


CIVIC BEAUTY 


105 


be removed, perhaps to allow more sunlight to 
reach our houses or the soil. But it is always 
work requiring knowledge and caution. 

One of the worst kinds of tree trimming, 
which sliould perhaps be called tree butchering, 
is the cutting away of the limbs, or even of the 
tops, of trees by electric linemen to make way for 
their poles and wires. This is an evil tliat exists 
both in the country and in tlie city. The linemen 
are not themselves usually to blame, for they are 
working under orders from the companies who 
employ them. Many a beautiful street or road 
has been made unsightly by this kind of tree 
mutilation. This is a matter for the community 
government to control; but the government will 
not usually act until the citizens show an interest 
in the preservation of the trees. 

Telegraph, telephone, and trolley poles are in 
themselves unsightly. In the business portions of 
cities the network of wires is danger- 
ous in time of fire, and this has led to 
their removal in many cities. This has been 
accomplished by placing the wires underground. 
But civic beauty has equal claims to the removal 
of such unsightly objects from the streets. Public 
sentiment is slowly being awakened in regard to 
tliis matter, and the time is coming when the 
view of a beautiful street will not be obstructed 
by lines of ugly poles and a network of wires. 


166 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Another means of disfiguring our streets is by a 
reckless use of advertising.. Men have a right to 

AdveiUscments, ^^tract attention to their wares; but 
bill-boards,etc. sliould be giveii to the means, 

the time, and the place of doing so. We allow 
beautiful features of our communities to be 
marred, and ugly features made more ugly, by 
permitting citizens to exercise perfect freedom in 
advertising for private gain. Unattractive signs 
are nailed to beautiful trees, which should not be 
marred by any kind of sign. Ugly telephone poles 
are made still uglier by the same means. Attract¬ 
ive residence streets are made unattractive by 
huge bill-boards with inartistic signs upon them. 
Even ‘the signs on business blocks, where they 
have a right to be, are often inartistic and wholly 
out of harmony with the architecture of 
the street. 

All cities have their systems of parks and bou 1- 
evards, though they are developed more highly 
Parksfind soiiie cities than in others. Boston 

perhaps stands lirst among American 
cities in this respect. It has 15,000 acres devoted 
to parks, which are connected with each other by 
lioulevards, and include a stretch of ocean beach. 
Some cities have preserved in their midst a bit 
of natural scenery to refresh the eye. In some 
of the larger cities spaces are being cleared of 
tumble-down buildings in the crowded portions to 


CIVIC BEAUTY 


167 


make way for small parks with grass and trees, 
flowers and fountains, to bring a little pleasure 
into the lives of those who seldom leave the 
crowded city for the fresh air of the country. 
Such is the little park at Mulberry Bend, in New 
York, which was once the center of the most vi¬ 
cious part of the slums. Parks and boulevards 
are under the care of boards of park commissioners^ 
who sometimes also have care over the trees of 
all the streets. Sometimes the latter are placed 
under the charge of special tree commissioners or 
foresters. 

Smoke is another of the accompaniments of 
groAving communities. Smoke, like the network 
Smoke Avires in the streets, has been as- 

preventJon. gumed to be a necessary sign of material 
prosperity. But, as the wires are disappearing 
beneath the surface of the streets, it is also being 
found that clouds of black smoke are not neces¬ 
sary to industry. The use of anthracite coal, the 
introduction of smoke consumers, and careful 
stoking, haA^e been shown to reduce the nuisance 
to almost nothing. A few of our large cities have 
become very much in earnest about getting rid of 
the smoke, ordinances have been passed and 
enforced against it, and the beauty of the com¬ 
munities has been greatly increased as a re¬ 
sult. 

We may have seemed, in this chapter, rather 


168 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


to have been pointing out defects in the appear- 
The desire ance of oiir Communities than to liave 
groiiSstronger been sliowiiig wliat our communities do 

in our com¬ 
munities. ^ positive way to satisfy our desire 

for things beautiful. But ugly features of our 
community life have been mentioned only to em¬ 
phasize the fact that our communities are doing 
more today than ever before to get rid of them. 
The taste for beauty and refinement is steadily 
growing. The people are demanding pleasanter 
surroundings, and our communities are steadily 
increasing the amount of enjoyment their citizens 
may get out of life. But there is still much to be 
accomplished in this direction, and its doing 
depends upon the citizens of the present and the 
future. There is a steady improvement in the 
character of the architecture in our cities. The 
people of small means are living, not only in more 
comfortable homes, but in more beautiful ones. 
The streets are constantly becoming more pleasant 
to look upon. There is a growing tendency to 
ornament cities with works of art, and with art 
galleries. There is a constantly increasing num¬ 
ber of organizations that have for their purpose 
the beautification of their communities. Local, 
State, and national governments are showing 
more interest than ever before in providing the 
people with the opportunity to satisfy more fully 
their desire for beautiful surroundings. 


CIVIC IIEAUTY 


1(><) 


The improvement in the surroundings of the 
people is bound to produce a better citizenship in 


every way. Men and women lose their 
spirits, become depressed, when tlieir 
surroundings are unpleasant. They 


Beautiful sur¬ 
roundings pro¬ 
duce better 
citizenship. 


lose hope and aml)ition. Much of tlie vice and 
crime of'large cities is no doubt induced by this 
cause. One of the first steps toward transforming 
men and women into good citizens wiio will con¬ 
tribute to the welfare of the community, is to 
give them pleasant surroundings. 


FOPv INVESTIGATION. 


1. lias any natural scenory been destroyed l)y the .t^rowth of 
your community? Was it altogether necessary? 

2. Is anything l)eing done in your community to prevent 
unnecessary destruction of natural beauty? 

3. What relation has the killing of birds to civic beauty? 

4. Report on the use of Niagara Falls as a power for indus¬ 
trial purposes. What is being done to j)reserve this natural 
wonder? 

5. Is your community notable for its beautiful homes? In 
what sections of the community is the greatest care taken in 
this respect? Why is it? 

6. Observe the premises of the homes in your neighborhood, 
beginning with ymur own, with reference to the care of the 
lawn; growth of weeds; the accumulation of rubbish; the 
neatness of the hack yards; the growth of llowers; the care of 
the streets and alleys adjoining. Make a report of conditions, 
and suggest improvements. 

7. Is your school as beautiful as it could he in the appear¬ 
ance of the yard? In the care of the halls and rooms? (>)uld 
you do anything to improve it? Do the people in the neighbor¬ 
hood take pride in the school building and grounds? If not, 
how could they he made to do so? 


170 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


8. Are the streets in your coniinunity l)eaiitiful ? If not, 
what are their defeetsV If they are, what constitutes their beauty? 

9. Ive})ort on the character of the pavements with reference 
to their aj)i)earance. 

10. AVTiat noises in your coniinunity are unnecessary? How 
could they be lessened ? 

11. What is done in your community to keep the streets 
clean? What ordiminces exist on this matter? Are they 
observed and enforced ? 

12. Observe the trees in your neighborhood, in streets and 
lawns, and report on their general condition and ajipearance. 
Is care taken to preserve beautiful trees? Is anything being 
done in a systematic way in tree jilanting? Are the trees being 
mutilated or destroyed by linemen or otherwise? Is any 
attempt being made to create a sentiment in favor of the trees ? 

13. ]\Iake a report on s'reet advertisements in your neighbor- 
hoo<l. Observe whether tlu' appearance of the streets, or of 
jirivate ])roperty, is marred liy such advertisements. 

14. Report on the parks and boulevards of your community. 
Describe their points of beauty. Are tliey used by the people 
freely? How are they managed? 

15. Is any otlicial, or body of othcials, appointi'd to care for 
the trees in the streets? 

1(). Report on the smoke nuisance and its iirevention in your 
community. Investigate what is being done in this line in 
other cities. 

17. What organizations jCxist in your community to improve 
its ajipearance? How do they work? 

18. Is your community active at the present time in the 
beautification of the streets and public ])laces by the erection of 
statuary, monuments, fountains, and in other ways? 

19. Is the architecture of your (annmunity improving in 
character? Observe residences, business blocks, churches, 
schools, and ])iiblic buildings. 

20. Select one of the most beautiful buildings in your com¬ 
munity and give a description of it. 

21. Is anything being done in your community to cultivate 
a taste for beautiful surroundings among those who live in the 
tenements, or in the poorer (juarters of the city? 

22. W rite an essay on the relation between civic beauty and 
good citizenship. 


CHAPTER XV. 


HOW THE CITIZENS OF A COMMUNITY GOVERN 
THEMSELVES. 

We have now looked at the life of the coiii- 
miiiiity from several points of view. We have 

The purpose of people are striving to 

stovernmenf. g.|^tisfy tlioir dosiros ill a variety of ways. 

But we have also seen that there are common in¬ 
terests, and that the welfare of one is the welfare 
of all. And yet it does not always seem so. Men 
do not always recognize their dependence upon, 
and obligation to, others. Sometimes they lack 
sufficient knowledge to do so. Sometimes they 
selfishly disregard the rights of others, as, for exr 
ample, when a man fiersists in clouding the atmos¬ 
phere with smoke from his factory, although he 
knows it is injuring the community, merely to 
avoid the expense of checking it; or when a cor¬ 
poration like a railroad charges unjust rates, or 
affords inadequate facilities for transportation 
because it has the power to do so. So that we 
often get the impression that community life is a 
life of conflict rather than of harmonious action. 

171 


172 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Under sucli imperfect conditions there must be 
some agency that is more far-sighted than any 
individual can be, and that is just, to secure 
the intelligent working together of all. Such 
an agency government is intended to be. 

The first idea that we must understand 
about government in America is that it is in- 
Government the tended to be the Servant of the people 
Elstentr* and not their master. When it begins 
the people. coiitrai’y to the will of the 

people it goes beyond its rightful powers. The 
American colonists sought their independence 
from England because the English government 
insisted on taxing them, and otlierwise exercis¬ 
ing authority over them, without their consent. 
In 1787 a convention of leading men of 
the country, chosen by their respective States, 
met in Philadelphia, and after four months of 
discussion laid before the people of the thir¬ 
teen States a Constitution, containing a plan of 
government. The preamble of this Constitution 
reads as follows: We, the people of the United 

States, in order to form a more perfect union. 
The preamble of establish justicc, iiisure doiiiestic tran- 
quility, provide for the common de. 
fense, promote the general welfare, and secure 
tlie blessings of liberty to ourselves and our pos¬ 
terity, do ordain and establish this Constitu¬ 
tion for the United States of America.” This 


HO\y THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF ]73 

wonderfully worded preamble, which contains in 
a nutshell the essential principles of our govern¬ 
ment, emphasizes the fact that the government 
was established by the people to do certain things 
for them. The plan of government was drawn up 
by a few leading men, but it was laid before 
the people of the States to be accepted or re¬ 
jected. They elected delegates to State 
conventions wliicli accepted and ratified the plan 
proposed. 

The simplest form of self-government is 
where the people meet together and make their 
Direct and owii laws. Such was the town-meeting 

representative ” 

seif-Kovernment. New England. But wlieii the com¬ 
munity grows large, it becomes impracticable for 
the citizens to assemble. Then they resort 
to the plan of selecting certain of their number 
to make their laws and perform the other work 
of government for them. This is representative 
self-government. The representatives of the peo¬ 
ple, chosen by the people, act for the people. Al- 
though direct self-government is still found 
occasionally in small communities in some 
parts of the United States, it has abnost entirely 
given way to the representative method in our 
local. State, and national communities. 

The next fact about our government that we 
must understand is its three-fold character. In the 
preceding cliapters there has been constant ref- 


174 ‘ THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 

ereiice to locals Stdte^ and national governments. 
Each of us is under the control of all three. 
The three-fold It might seeiii, at first thought, that 
government. WO are greatly oppressed with gov¬ 
ernment. But we must remember that we^ 
the peo2)le^ are our own rulers, and that we have 
simply found it more convenient and more to our 
advantage to have three groups of governing ma¬ 
chinery than one. We have chosen three serv¬ 
ants, instead of one, to attend to our business. 
Each has its particular work to do for us. 
Let us now see how the division of powers is 
made between them. 

The first division of powers is that between 
the State and national governments. When the 
Division of Constitution of our nation was made 
national ^the thirteen States were already in ex- 

and State 

governments, isteuce, eacli witli its own government 
organized under a State constitution. Why, then, 
was it necessary to have a national government in 
addition? It was because while the States were thir¬ 
teen separate communities in many particulars, they 
were, in other particulars, all parts of one community 
with certain interests common to' all alike. This was 
illustrated in chapter XI (see page 113). To pre¬ 
vent conllict of their separate interests, and 
to provide for the common interests of all, it 
was necessary to establish a central govern¬ 
ment. The national government was given 


now THE (X:)MMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 175 


the power, for example, to regulate our rela¬ 
tions with foreign nations, to regulate com¬ 
mercial relations between the States, and to 
estal)lish a uniform system of money and of 
weights and measures. None of these things 
could safely be left to the several States. 
They were what caused unutterable confusion 
and ‘constant strife among the States under the 
Articles of Confederation. The union of a num¬ 
ber of States under a central government consti¬ 
tutes a federal State. The central government is 
called the Federal government. 

The national government may exercise only 
such powers as are granted to it by the people in 
the Constitution, and these powers are few in 
number. The powers of Congress are enumerated 
in section 8 of article I of the Constitution. All 
other powers are left with the States. The 
tenth amendment to the Constitution says, ^'The 
powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States 
[see Art. I, sec. JO], are reserved to the States 
respectively, or to the people.” By this arrange¬ 
ment the vStates retain by far the greater part of 
the governing powers. Where the national gov¬ 
ernment controls our conduct once, the State 
government controls it many times. The State 
government protects us in our religious rights, 
provides for our education (chapter XIII), deter- 


170 


THE COIVIMUNITY AND THE CITIZl^N 


mines wlio sluill have the right to vote (page 180), 
prescribes the rules of marriage and of family 
relations (page 11), has almost the entire care 
of onr health (cha])ter IX), protects oiir property 
(chapter X), controls business relations of every 
kind except where foreign and interstate relations 
are concerned (cliapber XL), and provides for the 
])revention and punishment of crime, except 
in a very few cases that come under national 
control, such as the counterfeiting of money and 
the robbing of the mails. 

In this division of powers between State 
and national governments we see the Amer¬ 
ican love for self-government emphasized. 
The people of each State retain for them¬ 
selves the regulation of almost all the details 
of their lives. 

The second division of the powers, or work, of 
government is between the central State (jovern- 
Rclation be- Olie luilld, aiul tlie QOV- 

JndToc!!"*" eminent of local communities, on the other 
sovernnienis. relation bctweeii the local 

governments and the central State government 
is somewhat dillerent from the relation between 
tlie State governments and the national govern¬ 
ment. The State g)vernments are in no sense 
branches of the national government. State and 
national governments })oth get their powers 
directly from the people. But the local govern- 


HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 177 


ments are merely branches of the State govern¬ 
ment, and get their powers from the State 
government and not from the people of the local 
community. For example, the State government 
is organized according to a plan laid down in the 
State constitution, which is framed by the people 
themselves. But a city government is organized 
according to a plan laid down in a charter., which 
is framed, not by the people of the city in most cases, 
but by the State legislature. In other words, local 
governments exercise only such powers as are 
granted to them by the State legislature. In 
fact, the local governments have for their work 
chiefly the carrying out of the laws enacted by, the State 
government. That is, their duties are chiefly 
administrative. For example, there is a State law 
against burglary; but it is the local officers who 
protect property against burglars and arrest 
offenders. Local governments are allowed some 
law-making powers, especially in cities where 
the council enacts ordinances. The principle of the 
division of powers between State and local gov¬ 
ernments, however, is the same as that in the 
division between national and State governments; 
that is, to leave matters that touch the life of 
the individual most closely, and that are of 
purely local interest, in the hands of the local 
government as much as possible, while matters 
of more geaeral interest, such as the regulation of 


178 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the railroads and matters of general health, are 
regulated by the central State government. 

The relation of the different governments to 
each other and to the people may be shown by 
the diagram on the next page. 

It is a principle of the American government 
that the people’s representatives shall be chosen 
Representatives the 2)eople of the vurious localities from 
5^Se^oi^\elr their own number. The English colonists 

own local 

districts. America felt that they were not rep¬ 

resented in the House of Oommons, because they 
did not have a voice in choosing representatives 
to that body, nor did any member of the House 
come from America. In the early history of Mass¬ 
achusetts the people gradually allowed the taxing 
power to fall into the hands of a few men called 
the governor’s assistants, who held office from 
year to year without re-election. But one day 
the people at Watertown decided “that it was 
not safe to pay moneys after that sort, for fear of 
bringing themselves and posterity into bondage.” 
Therefore “every town chose two men [from its 
own citizens] to be at the next court to advise 
with the governor and assistants about the rais¬ 
ing of a public stock, so as what they should agree 
upon should bind all.” This idea has become a 
settled custom in the United States. Each city 
ward elects representatives from its own residents 
to the city council. In some States, at least, each 


now THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 1 


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180 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


township has its representatives on the board 
of county commissioners. Each State is divided 
into districts, from each of which a representa¬ 
tive is sent to the State legislature, and into 
other districts, from each of which a representa¬ 
tive is sent to the lower house of the national 
Congress. Each State has two representatives in 
the United States Senate. 

The right to vote for representatives in the 
government is called the suffrage. It is not a 

right that everybody possesses, like the 

The suffrage. . 

right to life, liberty, and property. It 
is a privilege bestowed by the State upon those 
who have certain qualifications. These qualifi¬ 
cations are prescribed by the State constitutions. 
Only in one case does the United States Con¬ 
stitution limit the right of the State to fix 
them, and that is found in the fifteenth 
amendment, adopted after the Civil War, which 
reads, “The right of citizens of the United 
States to vote shall not be denied or abridged 
by the United States, or by any State, on 
account of race, color, or previous condition 
of servitude.” 

At the beginning of our history the right to 
vote was limited to a relatively small portion of 
Ouaiifications citizoiis. Tliese restrictions have 

suffrage. largely been removed. Tliat is, we have 
been becoming more democratic. But there are still 


HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 181 


some restrictions, which vary more or less in the 
different States. In no State may anyone vote 
who is under twenty-one years of age. All States 
require a residence in the State, and in the 
county and city ward, for a certain time prior to 
voting. In only four States do women have the 
right to vote at all elections, although in a num¬ 
ber of States they may vote at school elections, 
and in a few cases in elections for city officers. 
In colonial times the right to vote was denied to 
all who did not own a certain amount of property. 
But today property restrictions have been almost 
wholly removed. It was also common, in colonial 
times, to deny the right to vote to all who were 
not members of a given church. But all religious 
qualifications have long since been removed. 
The suffrage is denied to citizens who are 
mentally unsound, and in some States to those 
who cannot read and write, and to paupers. A 
citizen may also be disqualified from voting by 
crime. But, with comparatively few exceptions, 
all male citizens who are twenty-one years of age 
or over possess the suffrage. In a few States even 
aliens may vote at all elections, provided they 
have declared their intention of becoming 
citizens. 

If at an election each voter should cast his vote 
for the man of his individual choice, there might 
easily be so many men voted for that no one would 


182 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


fairly represent a large number of citizens. It is 
necessary that the choice of the voters be limit¬ 
ed to a few men who are nominated as 
the regular candidates for the offices 
in question. The method of nominating candi¬ 
dates for the many elective offices in our country 
is very complicated. It is not prescribed in the 
State or national constitutions, nor by law, but 
has grown up gradually and become fixed by 
custom. In order to understand it, it is neces¬ 
sary to know something about political parties. 

In any community there are always differences 
of opinion on almost any question, as in religion, 
in educational matters, or in business 

rolitlcal parties. 

policy. If any such question is to be 
acted upon, those whose opinions are alike will 
act together in opposition to those who think 
differently. Now in questions of government 
there are dilferences of opinion. In the division 
of tlie people on any such question, those who 
think alike and act together systematically and con¬ 
stantly constitute a political party. The party 
may be of a local character and be formed with 
reference to a local question, such as the paving 
of tlie streets or licencing of saloons; or it may be 
national in its extent and arise out of some great 
national question, such as the extension of slavery 
or the acquiring of new territory. 

From Washington’s day to this there have 


HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 


183 


always been two great national political parties, 
and sonietinies other smaller ones. Their names 
have changed from time to time, and the particu¬ 
lar questions over which they have contended 
have also changed. But the fundamental question 
strict and always divided the great par- 

preStii?/oVthe whether the Constitution of the 

United States shall be literally inter¬ 
preted to give the national government only those 
powers that are expressly stated in the Constitu¬ 
tion, or broadly interpreted to give it powers that 
are not expressly stated, but only implied. For 
example, in Washington’s time the Federalist and 
Republican parties contended over the question 
whether Congress had the power to establish a 
national bank, which is nowhere expressly pro¬ 
vided for in the Constitution. In 1860 the Demo¬ 
cratic and Republican parties contended over the 
question whether Congress had the power to pre¬ 
vent the extension of slavery in the territories. 
In these cases the particular questions were the 
national bank and the extension of slavery. But 
tlie question underlying both of these was the 
extent of the powers of Congress. 

When Washington was first elected President 
questions of governmental policy had not yet 
divided the people, and his popularity was so great 
that all united upon him as their choice for the^ 
presidency. But when differences of opinion 


184 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


arose over the bank, foreign policy, internal 
improvements, and other matters, each party 
strove to elect representatives to the government 
who would carry out its ideas. They must first of 
of all agree upon a single candidate for each of 
the offices so that their vote Avould not be 
divided. 

The first method that was used by the parties 
for the nomination of a candidate for the presi- 
Methods of dency was for the members of each 

nominating • 

candidates. party 111 Ooiigress to meet and make the 
nomination. This method after a while became 
unpopular because the nomination fell into the 
hands of a small group of politicians, and the peo¬ 
ple felt that they did not have a sufficient voice 
in the matter. Then the custom arose of making 
the nominations in the several States. Some¬ 
times it was done by the party members of the 
the State legislature. But the custom gradually 
began to prevail of holding State conventions com¬ 
posed of delegates elected by the people of the 
State especially for the purpose. This method 
had the advantage of placing the nomination 
more directly in the hands of the people. 
But it had the disadvantage of tending to 
divide the party, for each State was likely to 
nominate its own favorite candidate regard¬ 
less of the action of the other States. This 
difficulty was finally overcome by placing the 


HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 


185 


nomination of the candidates for the presidency 
and the vice-presidency into the hands of a 
national convention composed of delegates from all 
the States. This is the method now in use. 

Let us suppose that an election time is 
approaching when officers are to be chosen for the 
local, State and national governments. We will 
suppose that all these officers are to be chosen at 
Primaries and the Same time, although that is not 
conven oos. ^.Iways the case. Several months before 
the election day, the proper committees of each 
party (see p. 187) call for the primary elections. 
These are elections held in each of the smallest 
election districts of the State. In cities the 
primary district is sometimes the ward and some¬ 
times the precinct, a subdivision of the ward; in 
rural districts it is the township, or precinct of 
the township. It is the business of the primary 
to nominate candidates for offices of the primary 
district, as ward councilmen or township trustees, 
and to elect delegates to mominating conventions of 
larger districts. This business is sometimes trans¬ 
acted in a meeting of the voters of the primary 
district; sometimes it is done by ballot, each 
voter going individually to the voting place 
sometime during the day. The candidates are 
chosen from among a number of men who have 
previously announced their desire to be con¬ 
sidered, through the newspapers and otherwise. 


18G 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Delegates are clioseii to several conventions for 
the nomination of candidates for the offices of 
larger areas. There are county conventions^ at which 
nominations are made for the county offices; city 
conventions for the nomination of city officers; 
assembly district conventions^ at which candidates for 
the lower house of the State legislature are 
nominated; senatorial district conventions^ for the 
nomination of candidates to the State senate; 
congressional district conventions for the nomination 
of candidates for the lower house of the national 
congress; and State conventions for the namination 
of candidates for the various State offices. These 
various conventions meet at times set by the 
proper committees of each party for the several 
districts named. 

The State convention not only nominates the 
candidates for the State offices, but also elects 
delegates to the national convention for the noinina- 
tion of President and Vice-President, and a mem¬ 
ber of the national party committee. Sometime 
during the summer preceding the national elec¬ 
tion, which occurs early in November, the na¬ 
tional convention of each,party meets and makes 
its nominations. Faithful party members are 
expected to render their support-to the candidates 
nominated by their respective primaries and 
conventions. 

The period of three or four months between the 


HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 187 
uominatious and the election day is spent by eacli 

The campaign. will Support for its 

candidates. This is done by a campaign^ 
during which eacli party appeals to the people 
through the newspapers, by the publication and 
distribution of special literature, by public 
Speeches, by parades in the streets, and by other 
means, some of which are commendable and 
others not. The winning of votes is deemed 
to be the all-important thing, not always 
with due regard to the right or wrong of the 
methods used. 

To arrange for the nominations, to carry on 
the campaign, and to provide for the elections, 
Organizanon requires a very thorough organization 
of the party party. The management is 

largely in the hands of committees. Each of the 
election districts named above, from the ward 
to the State and nation, has its central com¬ 
mittee. It is the business of these committees 
to keep in touch with the voters, to gather 
and distribute information, to collect and 
disburse funds for the conduct of the cam¬ 
paign, to provide speakers, publish literature, 
and many other things. The committees of 
the larger districts, and especially the 
State and national committees, are of great 
importance and exert very great influence. 
The chairmanship of . the national commit- 


188 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


tee is sought after by ambitious men as 
much as the highest public offices in our gov¬ 
ernment. 

We have been speaking, for convenience, as 
if there were just one campaign and one 
o , election time for all offices in our 

Frequency of 

elections. government, local. State, and national. 
Tliis is not, in fact, the case. The terms 
are not the same lengtli for all offices. 
The President and Vice-President are elected 
for four years, members of the House of 
Representatives for two years, judges for the 
State courts, when not appointed^ for from two 
to twenty-one years, governors for from two 
to four years, and so on. The practice in the 
United States is to make the terms of office 
short in order to give the people a chance 
frequently to express their approval or disap¬ 
proval of the service rendered by their rep¬ 
resentatives. The frequency of elections is 
increased by the fact that in many cases local 
elections are held at different times from na¬ 
tional elections. City elections are often held 
in the spring, while State and national elections 
occur in the fall. This is done in order that 
questions of national importance may not be 
confused with questions of mere local import¬ 
ance. 

Not all of our representatives in the govern- 


now THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELE 189 


ment are chosen by a direct vote of the peo- 
, , pie, however. In some cases they are 

repre^ntetives elected indirectly by the people through 
of government, State legislatures. Thus the 

United States senators are chosen. It was once 
the common practice of the States to allow 
their legislatures to elect the governors. But 
today they are chosen in all the States by the 
direct vote of the people. The Constitution of 
the United States provides that the President 
and Vice-President shall be elected by a group 
of men from each State, called electors (Art. 
II, sec. 1, clause 2; Amend. XII.) Each State 
may appoint its electors in any manner it 
chooses. Formerly they were appointed by the 
State legislatures; but today they are elected by 
popular vote in all the States. When the 
voters go to the polls on election day in No¬ 
vember, they in reality cast their ballots for 
the electors, who have been nominated in the 
State convention, and not for the President and 
Vice-President directly. The intention of the 
Constitution was that the electors should have 
the matter of choosing the President entirely 
in their hands, the thought being that they 
would be better able to select a capable man 
for the office than the people. But since the 
party system, with its metliod of making presi¬ 
dential nominations, has arisen, the choice by 


190 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the electors is a mere form, for they invariably 
vote for the candidate nominated by their party 
convention. 

By far the greater num'l:)er of those who serve 
the people in government offices are not elected 
Appointment appointed by various 

of officers. executive officers who are elected, such 
as the President, the governors, the mayors of 
cities, and their subordinates. It would be im¬ 
practicable for the people to elect all the 
thousands of officers and employes necessary for 
carrying on the work of the governments. It is 
deemed better to elect only the chief officials, 
upon whose work the people can keep their eyes 
with comparative ease, and to hold them respon¬ 
sible, not only for their own work, but also for 
the work of all those whom they appoint to sub¬ 
ordinate positions. 

This, in general, is the way in which the people 
provide for the machinery of the government 
The citizen wliich is to serve them in regulating 
SoveVnSt’*^ the affairs of the community. But one 

as the agent of 

the community, point further iieeds to be emphasized. 
We have said that government is the servant, and 
not the master, of the people. What, then, about 
obedience to the government? Shall masters 
obey their servants? The feeling of personal 
responsibility for the conduct of community aff airs 
and obedience are the two most essential qualities 


now THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 191 


of good citizenship. The government is tlie ser¬ 
vant of the commiinitij, and tlie individual is called 
npon to ol)ey the government as the agent of the 
community. When the government says to an 
individual that he must do tliis, or tliat he must 
not do that, it is the voice of the people speaking 
to him througli the government. It was William 
Penn who said : Any (lovernment is free to the peo¬ 

ple under it where the laws rule and the people are a 
party to those laws. Liberty without obedience is con¬ 
fusion, and obedience without liberty is slavery.” 


E()R INVESTIGATION. 

1. Study tof 2 :othor in duss the })rt‘ain))le of the Constitution, 
noticiii} 2 : carefully the though aiid the lau<nui 2 :o. 

2. Re})ort on the lueetiu^ of the Const itutioual convention, 
its prominent nieinl)ers, and the method hy which they were 
chosen. 

3. Report on the ratilication of the Constitution hy the 
State conventions. Was there much opposition to the Consti¬ 
tution? 

4. Discuss direct and indirect self-,e:overmnent. Does 
direct self-government exist in any way in your commu¬ 
nity ? 

5. Discuss in class the meaning of democracy; of a repnh- 
lic. What other forms of government are there besides 
republics? 

(). Discuss the m(\aning of a federal State, and of the federal 
government. Emphasize the division of powers l)etween State 
and national governments. 

7. Study the i>owers'of Congress ennnierate<l in Art. I, sec. 
8 of the Constitution. Study the i)owers denied to the States hy 
the Constitution in Art. I, sec. 10. 

8. Discuss some of tlie powers that may be exercised hy 
both State and national governments. 


192 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZPIN 


9. Discuss carefully iii class how the relations between State 
and local governin.uits dilier from the relations between State 
and national governments. 

10. Give exam})les of how the local government carries out 
the provisions of some State law. 

11. Give examples of some of the laws enacted by your local 
government. 

12. AVdiat are the advantages of having our representatives 
live in our own locality? What disadvantages might arise 
from this custom? Investigate what the custom is in England 
in this respect. 

13. What are the (pialifications for the suffrage in your State 
(see State constitution) ? Do you think that these qualifications 
should be increased, or otherwise? 

14. Report on the meaning of the fifteenth amendment to 
the Constitution, and the historical reason for its enact¬ 
ment. 

15. AVhat are the great political parties of to-day? What 
are some of the questions upon which they are opposed to 
each other? 

10. Are there, or have there been, any local political parties 
growing out of local questions in your community? 

17. Discuss in class the meaning of broad construction and 
strict construction of the Constitution. 

18. Discuss in class the doctrine of implied powers. 

19. llow are primaries held in your community? 

20. Investigate, and give an outline of, the method of nomi¬ 
nating your county officers, from the primary to the final nomi¬ 
nation; your city officers; your State officers; the Rresi- 
dent. 

21. Eind out what you can about the organization of the 
})arty which you favor in your community and in your State 
(committees, etc.). 

22. What are some of the metliods used in conducting a 
political campaign? 

23. What is the method of electing the President as given 
in the Constitution, Art. II, sec. 2, and Amend. XII? Discuss 
in class the purpose of this method, and how the method 
actually works. 

24. Think of the persons holding government oflices or posi¬ 
tions in your community, and estimate about what pro- 


now THE COMMUNITY CJOVERNS ITSELF 198 


portion of them are elected, and what proportion ap¬ 
pointed. 

25. Study carefully the ineanim; of the quotation from 
William Penn <^ivcri in th3 last paragraph. 


CHAPTER XVI. 

SOME DEFECTS IN THE SELF-GOVERNMENT OF OUR 
COMMUNITIES. 

In some ways our self-government does not 
work as intended. In the first place it is not 
always representative of all the people, 

Self-eovernment 

but is a government of the people by a 
all citizens. While we have, in theory, been 

growing more democratic, in practice we are a 
kind of oligarchy. One reason for this is that 
the people themselves lack sufficient interest to 
take part in government as much as they could. 
They do in this as they are inclined to do in other 
matters : having employed some one to look after 
the business of government for them, they feel 
relieved of all responsibility. But if we arc to 
be a really self-governing people, each citizen 
must take an active part. 

There are only a few ways in which most citi- 

The duty of take part in government, but 

taking office, important. Not many 

citizens can hold office. But in a self-governing 


194 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 


195 


community it is the duty of a citizen, as well as a 
privilege, to take office when the community 
calls upon him. It may seem unnecessary to 
emphasize this, for usually there are more men 
who want office than there are offices to fill. But 
the trouble is that it is not always the men who 
seek office that make the best officers. The men 
who will look after the community’s business best 
are most often men who have large interests of 
their own. The wide-awake community that is 
fully alive to its best interests will usually look 
among these busy, successful men and say to one 
of them, capable, honest and successful 

in managing your own affairs; we want you to 
help manage the community’s affairs in office.” 
But, unfortunately, such men too often shrink 
from the burdens and cares of office, or from giv¬ 
ing up so much time from their own business. 
Patriotism to one’s community calls for just such 
sacrifices. 

The same lack of patriotism is shown in a 
smaller way by a larger number of citizens who 

patriousm In all maiiiier of excuses to avoid 

jury service. servicos of various kinds. A good 

example of this is in jury service. Every person 
has tlie right to trial before a jury of his fellow 
citizens in criminal or civil cases. (Oonstitution, 
Amend. VI and VII). Every man, with few 
exceptions, may be called upon to serve on a jury. 


196 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


and he is shirking an important responsibility if 
he, without good cause, seeks to avoid it. There 
are some classes of men who are regularly and 
properly excused from jury service, such as 
physicians, whose services in their regular pro¬ 
fession are too important to the community to be 
neglected. And every man may, at times, have 
a valid excuse for not serving. But the fact that 
it is so difficult to get jurymen from the best 
classes of citizens often results in juries of idlers 
and ignorant men who hang around court-rooms 
for lack of something better to do, or for the 
pay it affords. One of the strongest safeguards 
against injustice is thus weakened. 

The paying of taxes is a most important way of 
taking part in the government. Every citizen is 
In paying longer Called upon to help clean the 

streets, or to put out fires. Certain 
officers are provided to do these things for us. 
But when we employ anybody to do something 
for us, we must pay them for it. All citizens who 
have property are taxed, therefore, to help pay 
the expense of government. But it is sur¬ 
prising to find how many citizens endeavor to 
avoid paying their share toward sustaining the 
government in its work for them. It is as dis¬ 
honest as to seek to avoid paying the grocer or 
the butcher. 

Another way of taking part in the government 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMEFT 


197 


is by voting for the nomination and election of 
And in officers. But thousands of voters stay 
away from the polls on election day, 
throwing away the privilege of self-government, 
and allowing others to govern them. This 
is especially true at the primaries, which are 
really the most important part of an election. 
For at the primaries not only are the officers of 
the primary district (ward and township) nomi¬ 
nated, but delegates are chosen to the conventions 
that will nominate city, county, and State officers, 
and indirectly the national officers. The choice 
of good men for the highest offices in the land, 
even the President, depends upon the choice of 
good men at the primaries. And yet it is notori¬ 
ous that the primaries are poorly attended. 

There are several reasons for this. One is. 
that men feel too busy to leave their work, or 
Why men do they coiisider the election of delegates 
primaries. and the nomination of local officers too 
unimportant to take their time. But the com¬ 
munity business is more important than that 
of individuals, and the primary is the foun¬ 
dation of our system of choosing representa¬ 
tives. Another reason voters give for not at¬ 
tending the primaries is that they are unac¬ 
quainted with the candidates for nomination 
or election, and therefore cannot vote intelli¬ 
gently. In large communities where men do 


198 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


not know all their noiglihors, it is diflicult for 
the ordinary hiisy citizen to keep informed in 
regard to the merits of the various candidates. 
But after all, if a citizen is sufficiently inter¬ 
ested, and does not wait until a day or two 
before the primary to inform liimself, it is 
usually possible for him to enlighten liimself 
sufficiently to cast his vote. This excuse is 
often an admission of llagging interest in what 
is going on in the community during the time 
between elections. In many ol‘ our cities there 


are reform 

associations 

which 

publish. 

])e- 

fore election 

time, the 

names 

of the 

caii- 

di dates of 

all parties 

witli a 

sketch 

of 


their records as citizens and pulilic servants. 

Another thing that keejis many voters away 
from the primaries is the feeling that their 

Primaries con. ^otes would liave uo real influence, 
trolled by a few. because of Unfair treatment at 

the primaries, or because the action of the pri¬ 
mary is determined beforehand by a few 
party leaders. But even these are not suffi¬ 
cient reasons for staying away from the polls. 
For if all good citizens in a iirimary district 
always attended the primaries, there would 
usually be enough of them to prevent a small 
group of politicians from controlling affairs 
against their will. By staying away the timid 
voters abandon the tight, before it is begun, 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVEENMENT IIM) 

to the small, but wide-awake group of politi¬ 
cians, who therefore can run things as they 
please, whether for good or for ill. But it is 
discouraging to many citizens to be compelled 
to attend a primary held, as often happens in 
large cities, in a dirty back room of a 
saloon, to be jostled by rowdies, and to have 
their votes and suggestions ignored, even if they 
have the opportunity to give them. 

This brings us to some of the dangers 
to self-government resulting from the way 
in which political parties are organized and 
managed. 

Political parties are unavoidable under a form 
of government like ours. They are the means 
of securing united action among the voters who 
think alike. A voter cannot accomplish much 
unless he belongs to a party and works and 
votes with it. And yet it must be remembered 
that a party is merely a means to accomplish a 
result, and not in itself a sacred thing. The 
purpose of a party should be to secure good gov¬ 
ernment for all the people. The words of Wash¬ 
ington in his Farewell Address should always 
be kept in mind by the patriotic American 
„ , citizen. He said : “The spirit [of party], 

party spirit. unfortunately, is inseparable from our 
nature, having its root in the strongest passions 
of the human mind. It exists under different 


200 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


shapes in all governments, more or less stilled, 
controlled, or repressed; but in those of thejpop- 
ular form it is seen in its greatest rankness, 
and is truly their worst enemy. The alternate domi¬ 
nation of one faction over another, sharpened by the 

spirit of revenge natural to party dissensions . 

is itself a frightful despotism .the common 

and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party- 
are sufficient to make it the interest and duty 
of a wise people to discourage and restrain it.” 

In a government wliere the voice of the peo¬ 
ple rules, and where the people are divided 
The majority their opiiiioii, it is necessary that the 
majority shall rule. The party that repre¬ 
sents the majority of the voters must 
determine the policy of the government. But 
it should not be forgotten that the party in 
power should govern in the interests of the minority, 
as well as of the majority. The minority should al¬ 
ways have an opportunity of expressing tlieir views 
in the councils of the government, and the party 
in power should respect tlieir views as far as pos¬ 
sible. If the party in power has a good policy for 
the interests of the people, it will be shown by 
the results of its administration, and the 
majority will show their confidence by keep¬ 
ing it in power. If its policy is bad, it 
will sooner or later lose the confidence of the 
majority, and another party will come into power. 




SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVEENMENT 


201 


But the trouble is that the leaders of a party 
often come to desire the success of their party at 
Party success almost any cost. And when they gain 
a any cos. coiitrol of the government, they 

endeavor to keep it by any means possible. They 
think more of the success of their party than of 
the real will of the people. Then we have the 
conditions against which Washington warned the 
people of the country, the despotism of a faction, 
or of a few ambitious and skillful leaders. Let 
us look at some of the ways by which this is 
done. 

To secure united action among the members of 
a party there must be organization under the 
The party direction of leaders of influence. Each 

machine, rin^s 

and bosses. city Ward Iias its leader, or leaders, who 
gain their position through their ability to influ¬ 
ence the voters of the ward and to hold them 
together. These ward leaders are under the 
authority of a leader, or “ring” of leaders for 
the whole city. If one leader gains great influ¬ 
ence over the party in the city, or in the State, 
he is called a boss. And so we have this organ¬ 
ization throughout the nation, with branches in 
every community. The organization is often 
called the maeMne, the group of leaders controlling 
the machine is a political rinq, and the boss 
is the commander-in-chief of all, his influ¬ 
ence sometimes being limited to a city, or 


202 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


extending; over a State, or even the whole nation. 

Now these names—machine, ring, and boss— 
were applied ])y the i)arty’s enemies. They do 
Party manage- not iiecessarily mean anything bad. A 
seiHshends. machine (that is, an organization) is 
necessary, and there must be bosses, or leaders. 
The evil connected with these things arises from 
the fact that tlie machine often falls into the 
hands of ambitions, but nnscrnpnlons, bosses and 
.rings, who manage the ])arty merely for the 
party’s sake, or, what is worse, for their own 
selfish ends. Too often they dictate to the peo¬ 
ple, instead of ascertaining the people’s will and 
following that. This dictation is often not made 
openly, but slyly, so that the people still think 
they are governing themselves. Unfortunately, 
the mass of the voters are usually willing that the 
leadei’s should assume the authority to dictate, 
partly through indilference, and partly through 
the feeling that the leaders are in a better 
position than they to know the merits of the 
candidates. It is another case of shifting re¬ 
sponsibility. 

Before a primary meets it is customary for the 
local machine to prepare a list of candidates, 
Devices for aiul present it to the voters at the pri- 

controlllng 

the primary. mary for their approval. The voters 
usually accept the slate, as the list is called, 
without question. But if they wish to object, it 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 


208 


is not easy to prevail against the machine. It 
has not been uncommon for the machine to pack 
the primaries with a lot of their friends, some¬ 
times even paid for the purpose, or to refuse 
admission to voters known to be opposed to the 
slate, on one pretext or another. If the chair¬ 
man of the primary chooses to do so, he may 
refuse to recognize those who wish to speak who 
are not in the ring. Or he may secure an unfair 
count of the votes. Of course such methods do 
not prevail in all primaries. But when they do, 
the work of the primary is a farce, and govern¬ 
ment is a baneful despotism in the hands of 
the ring. 

Of course when such methods are employed in 
the primaries their results are felt throughout the 
process of nomination and election. For the dele¬ 
gates to the various nominating conventions are 
chosen at the dictation of the machine, and go 
pledged to vote for certain candidates. 

It sometimes happens that bosses and rings are 
themselves under the domination of wealthy cor- 
Dcspotismof porations which, by a free use of money 
wrpora«ons. or otherwise, are seeking to secure legis¬ 
lation favorable to their own selfish interests. 
There are States in the Union in which the 
elections and the acts of the legislatures are said 
to be dictated by the great railroads of these 
States, or of other powerful corporations. Some 


204 


tup: community and tup: citizen 


cities are under the control of street railways or 
gas companies. In such cases the people are 
not their own governors, but are subject to the 
despotism of the corporations. 

Among the various devices used by a party 
to carry elections is to fix the boundaries of the 
Gerryman- election distiucts ill sucli a way that the 
party will have a majority of voters in 
most of the districts. The ask of fixing the 
boundaries of these districts belongs to the city 
council, in cities, and the legislature, in States. 
The party in power in the legislature or city 
council may include in most of the districts a 
majority of voters of that party, and thus re¬ 
tain their supremacy in the legislature or coun¬ 
cil. This is called gerrymandering^ from the 
name of El bridge Gerry, who is said to have 
been resiionsible for the scheme in Massachu¬ 
setts. Gerrymandering is also employed some¬ 
times in districting States for the election of 
representatives to Congress. 

The leaders of a party use various methods 
to maintain their control over the voters, and 
Howthe party' over the Subordinate leaders. It de- 

malntains con¬ 
trol over voters. pends upon the cliaracter of those to 

lie controlled. Sometimes it is by argument 
and persuasion merely, sometimes by threats, 
sometimes by promises of reward, and some¬ 
times by actual bribery. A common method is 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 


205 


to hold before the party worker the promise 
of reward by appoinlment to some office of 
government. Nearly all the offices of govern¬ 
ment are filled by appointment, and constitute 
the civil service. There are in the neighborhood 
The civil 300,000 such offices or positions 

under the national government, and 
probably as many more under the State and 
local governments. It is natural that when 
these offices are filled they should be filled 
by men who carry out the policy of the gov¬ 
ernment as indicated by the party in power. 

There are some of the high offices in the civil 
service in which this is very important, as, for 
example, the positions of the cabinet officers 
who are advisers with the President and carry 
out his policy in the management of the affairs 
of government. 

But there are some offices in which party 
feeling should not be allowed to enter at all, 
as, for example, in the case of judges of 

our courts. Their business is to interpret the 
law and to render justice, which is always 

the same under any party. There are many 

thousands of other offices, or government posi¬ 
tions, in which a man’s party beliefs would 
make no difference in the performance of his 
duty, as in the case of postmen and mail clerks, 
or policemen. But it early became the practice 


206 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


of a victorious party to dismiss all members 
of the defeated party who were holding gov- 
Thespoils eriiment positions, and fill their places 
system. with its owii members. This plan 

began in the national government under An¬ 
drew Jackson, and is known as the spoils system^ 
because it was founded on the principle that “to 
the victors belong the spoils.” 

The spoils system of providing for the civil 
service brought with it a train of evils. In 
the first place, the changes made in 

Government 

ors?rv?aaJ?* civil service with each change of 
not a reward, administration were injurious to the 

efficiency of the service. But the worst evil was 
the habit it cultivated of looking upon the 
offices of government as booty, to be sought for, 
and even fought for, as rewards for party service. 
The result is that after every election there 
is a horde of party servers clamoring and 
scrambling for local. State, and national offices. 
A government office is a post of public ser¬ 
vice, and should not be regarded as a reward. 
The man who works for a party merely for what 
he can get out of it iu the shape of a salaried 
office is not a safe man for the people to put 
their confidence in as their representative in 
government. He is not a patriot seeking to 
serve the people; he is a hanger-on seeking 
his own selfish ends. 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 


207 


Defects are always unpleasant to look upon. 
The question may arise in onr minds whether our 
Conditionsare government is all that it pretends to 

sretti ns: better, 

not worse. bo, and whether we are the free and 
self-governing people that we usually consider 
ourselves. But we must not get a wrong im¬ 
pression of the situation. Any plan, however 
excellent, is bound to miscarry at times when 
it is in the hands of imperfect human beings. 
It must not be supposed that our plan of gov¬ 
ernment is wrong because it is sometimes 
wrongly used. Neither must it be supposed 
that it is wrongly used in the hands of all 
officers. Instead, we have great reason to be 
hopeful that the defects in our government 
will disappear. We can feel assured that the 
great majority of the people will do right 
when they see the right, and that there are 
today many lionest and patriotic leaders who 
are earnestly striving to give the people the 
best that government can offer. Conditions 
are not getting worse, but better. If we see 
more corruption today than formerly, it is 
rather because we are opening our eyes, and that 
we are striving more earnestly to uproot the 
evils. 

For example, a great deal has been done in 
the last few years to destroy the spoils system of 
making appointments to office. In 1888 a civil 


208 


THE OOMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


service law was passed, and a Civil Service 
Commission created, by Congress, -for the 
The merit purpose of improving condition. By this 

system la the pi* • j j. 

civil service, act a merit system ot making appointments 
was introduced. At first it was applied only to a 
few of the offices, but the number of offices in which 
it operates has steadily increased until today more 
than half of the national offices are subject to it. 
By the merit system, candidates for the civil serv¬ 
ice must pass a competitive examination to show 
fitness, and when appointed hold office during good 
behavior. The merit system of appointment has 
also been adopted in some States and cities. 

In a number of States, also, laws have been 
passed to secure honest primaries. This is one 
Reform of reason why the caueiis method of holding 
the primaries, (that is, the meeting together 

of the voters of the primary district) has been 
abandoned in many ];)laces and the nominations of 
the local officers and election of delegates made 
hy ballot^ as in the case of a regular election, each 
voter going singly to the polls to cast his vote. 
Another reform to prevent voters from being 
unduly inffuenced by threats or bribery is the 
introduction^of elections by the Australian system. 
Formerly each party had its ticket (list of 
candidates) printed on a separate piece of 
paper, usually of different color from the tickets 
of other parties. It could then be seen how each 


SOME DEFECTS IN SELF-GOVERNMENT 


209 


man voted, and he could be held to account 
by watchers. But the Australian ballot contains 
The Australian names of the candidates of all 

parties upon a single sheet of paper. 
Every voter receives one of these from election 
officers, and retires into a booth alone, where he 
marks the names of the candidates for whom he 
wishes to'vote, unseen by anyone. The secrecy of 
Voting ballot gives him greater independ- 

ence. An improvement over the Aus¬ 
tralian plan of voting, is the voting machine, a 
mechanical device for the registering of a man’s 
vote, which prevents any possibility of fraud in 
the casting or counting of votes. 

But the most important thing of all to insure 
honest and capable government, government that 
Responsibility is really'for the people and by the peo- 

of the citizen . « t j i i 

forreform. pie, IS tor every good Citizen who has 
the right to vote to take part actively in 
that government. There have been some re¬ 
markable reforms in government, recently, in 
some States, and especially in some cities. 
In every case they have been brought about 
only when the majority of good citizens be¬ 
came aroused, and worked together in season 
and out of season to secure the retirement of 
dishonest officials and the election of honest men. 
It is every citizen’s supreme duty.to keep him¬ 
self informed in regard to political matters, and to 


210 


THE community and THE CITIZEN 


take an active part in securing good government. 

Every citizen should belong to a political party, 
for without cooperation and organization little 
can be accomplished. If he feels that 

Membership in 

bffitmustb?’ serve his country best by belong- 

Swnsden- ing to oiie party, he should belong to 
that; if by belonging to another, he 
should belong to that. It may sometimes be a 
citizen’s duty to leave his party and unite with 
another, temporarily or permanently. For it is a 
false idea that a man is bound to remain with his 
party, regardless of right or wrong. It may be 
that a citizen cannot conscientiously support all 
the candidates his party offers, and feels called 
upon to vote for one or more candidates of another 
party—to scratch his ticket, as. it is called. The 
important thing is to know why we belong to one party 
or another. We should know the principles for 
which our candidates stand, and not follow blindly 
the dictates of party leaders. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Discuss in class the question whether we are a democracy 
or an oligarchy. Are we more or less oligarchical today than 
in Washington’s time? 

2. Why is holding office a duty? Why is it a privilege? 

3. How are jurymen selected? What will debar a man 
from serving on a jury? What would you consider a good ex¬ 
cuse for an ordinary business man’s not serving when called 
upon? 

4. Are the primaries in your community well attended? 


SOME DEFECTS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 


211 


Try to find out the reasons for non-attendance from some of the 
men of your acquaintance. 

5. Is there any organization in your community that tries 
to inform the people of the records and character of the candi¬ 
dates for nomination and election? Why might it be difficult 
to get reliable information in regard to these matters? 

0. Have any laws been passed recently in your State for 
the reform of the primaries? What are the main features of the 
new primary law? 

7. Study those parts of Washington’s Farewell Address that 
deal with political parties. 

8. Investigate the methods of conducting primaries in the 
worst districts of largo cities. Where are they held? How 
are they managed? Are similar methods used anywhere in 
your own city? 

9. Report on the history of Tammany Hall in New York. 

II. Rejwrt on the history of the Gas Ring in Philadel¬ 
phia. 

11. Make a report on the process of gerrymandering, and give 
illustrations. 

12. Report on the application of the spoils system under 
Jackson’s administration. 

13. Report on the history of civil service reform. 

14. Report on the merit system as it is now applied in the 
civil service of the United States government. Does it work 
satisfactorily? 

15. Is the merit system of appointment used in your 
State? 

16. Is the merit system of appointment used in your city 
government? How does it work? 

17. Look up the story of the recent reform in the government 
of Philadelphia. 

18. Look up the story of the recent reform in the govern¬ 
ment of St. Louis. 

19. Report on the Australian system of voting. 

20. Are voting machines used in your community? How do 
they work? 


CHAPTER XVII. 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES: TOWN¬ 
SHIP AND COUNTY. 

The English colonists who settled in America 
were familiar with forms of both national and 
local government in England. Their removal to 
America did not change their national govern¬ 
ment in any way, at first, for the English 
government remained theirs. But to meet their 
local needs in this country, it was necessary to 
establish some form of local government here. 
In doing so, it was natural that they should 
imitate the forms with which they had been 
familiar in England. 

In the early times of English history the small¬ 
est political division of the land was the town which. 


in those days, consisted of a palisaded 
village, with surrounding farm and 
pasture land, and which was governed 


Origin of 
township 
and town 
meeting. 


by a meeting of the men of the town, or town¬ 
meeting. In the troublous course of early English 
history, these towns lost their right of direct self- 


212 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES 213 


government. But meanwhile another division of 
the land had appeared for purposes of church 
govermnent. This was the parish^ and was under 
the control of the parish priest. The parish 
usually coincided in area with the older town, 
although sometimes it included more than one of 
the latter. The people of the parish met in a 
a vestry-meeting, to assess the church rates for 
church expenses and the care of the poor. As the 
powers of the town-meeting declined, the vestry¬ 
meeting gradually assumed them, until it finally 
became really the same thing as the older town¬ 
meeting. 

The story of the founding of New England by 
the Puritans is familiar to you. When the 
Why the religious desires of the Puritans were 

township sys« 

tem was interfered with by the government of 

adopted in o 

New England. England to sucli ail extent that they 
had to leave their country, they went in congre¬ 
gations ; and when they settled in Massachusetts 
they settled m little palisaded communities around the 
church. They did this partly for purposes of wor¬ 
ship, and partly for protection against the Indians. 
The surface and soil of New England were such 
that the farms were small, and this also tended 
to produce small, compact communities. 

Under these conditions it was natural that the 
New England colonists should adopt the town, or 
parish, idea of government with which they were 


214 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


familiar. Each little community, including the 
village and the surrounding farms, was called 
The town. ^ towu^ or towTishij)^ aiid was governed by 
a meeting of all the freemen (landholders) 
who belonged to the church. This meeting was called 
the town-meeting. It originally met in the church, 
but afterwards in the town-house. It levied taxes 
for church purposes, to provide for the poor, and 
to pay the expenses of government. It provided 
for a school. It authorized the construction and 
repair of roads and bridges. The laws enacted 
by the town-meeting were called by-laws., which 
means “ town-laws ”. 

For the execution of the by-laws it was necessary 
for the town-meeting to appoint or elect officers. 
^ First of all, there were from three to 

nine selectmen, varying with the size 
of the township. They had general supervision 
over all community l)usiness. They represented 
the town when the town-meeting was not in session, 
and called the town-meeting when necessary. The 
town-clerk kept the records of the business of the 
town. The town-treasurer charge of the funds 
of the town, receiving the taxes paid by the peo¬ 
ple, and paying the expenses of the community. 
There were tax assessors., who determined the 
amount of tax each citizen must pay, and over¬ 
seers of the poor. The duties of the last named 
officers were often performed by the selectmen 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES 215 

themselves. The constable served warrants issued 
by the selectmen, arrested criminals, and some¬ 
times collected the taxes. Each town also had a 
school committee. There were numerous other offi¬ 
cers, such as field-drivers and pound-keepers to look 
after stray animals; fence-viewers to settle boundary 
disputes; surveyors of lumber; sealers of weights and 
measures; measurers of wood; and many others. 

Thus the people of New England managed their 
local community affairs. The township is still 

Influence of the of the political Organization in 

town-meetinjr. New England States, and the town¬ 

meeting may still be found in many small com¬ 
munities, although it has necessarily been aban¬ 
doned for the representative system (page 173) 
in the larger communities. The influence of the 
town-meeting in developing a strong citizenship 
has been very great. Each voter has the right 
to attend and to take part in the discussion and 
settlement of affairs. And experience shows 
that they take advantage of their right, as a rule. 
Others besides voters often attend to listen to the 
discussions and to the transaction of business. 
The town-meeting thus becomes a school of in¬ 
struction in public matters. Information leads 
to interest. Nowhere do we find such general in¬ 
terest in public questions as in the parts of the 
country where the town-meeting prevails. It en¬ 
courages healthy, active citizenship. 


216 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Ill England, at the time when America was 
being colonized, the parish was only a part of the 
Origin of local government. There was also the 
the county. gJure, or county. England is made np of 
a number of ancient kingdoms, which were gradu¬ 
ally conquered by the Saxon kings and welded 
into the kingdom of England. They continued to 
exist, however, ns shares, or shires, of the kingdom, 
and after the Norman conquest were called counties. 
The county included a number of parishes, or 
townships. Over the county there was a govern¬ 
ment which at one time was composed of repre¬ 
sentatives from the townships and cities, but 
which afterwards consisted of a number of justices 
of the peace who were appointed by the king. 
These justices constituted the court of quarter 
sessions, meeting every quarter of the year to hold 
court. They were both a judicial body, trying 
cases at law, and an administrative body, managing 
the affairs of the county. 

The colonists of Virginia did not come, like the 
Pilgrims, for religious freedom, nor, like the 

The county sys- ^^^er settlei’s of Massacliusetts, for 
tem In Virginia. freedom. They came in search 

of wealth. Virginia is a rich farming country, in 
which the cultivation of tobacco in great planta¬ 
tions proved to be the most profitable industry. 
The colonists therefore scattered themselves over 
the country, along the rivers, as planters, instead 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES 217 


of living in compact communities like the New 
England colonists. When they organized them¬ 
selves for local government, therefore, they 
adopted the English plan of county government, in¬ 
stead of the township plan. The whole colony was 
divided into counties^ sometimes called plantations^ 
over each of which was placed a county courts con¬ 
sisting of eight justices of the peace. These justices 
were appointed by the governor of the colony, as 
in England they were appointed by the king, but 
The coanty they could tlieiuselves fill vacancies in 
their number. The county court was 
primarily a judicial body^ trying cases at law, and 
meeting for the purpose about once a month at 
a designated point called the county seat. But it 
also had administrative powers., as in England. It 
looked after roads and bridges. It appointed 
highway surveyors for the several precincts into which 
the county was divided for this purpose. It 
appointed a constable for each precinct. It levied 
taxes for the maintenance of roads and bridges, 
and for other expenses of government. 
County officers. couuty there was a sheriff, an 

officer who also existed in England, and who was 
appointed in Virginia by the colonial governor 
from among the members of the court. His chief 
duties were to execute the judgments of the 
court, and to serve as treasurer and tax collector. 
Another important officer in the county 


218 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


was the county lieutenant^ who had command of 
the militia. 

Thus we find two forms of local government in 
the colonies. Both were brought from England, 
Difference be- but eacli was adapted to the peculiar 
mdhodsf*^" couditioiis ill wliicli the colonists found 
themselves. The two forms differed from each 
other in certain important ways, the township 
government of New England being a form of di¬ 
rect self-government, while that in Virginia was 
not even representative, since most of the officers 
were appointed by the governor, who was ap¬ 
pointed by the king in England. 

It is true that the county was also created in New 
England. But it had very little importance ex- 
TheNew judicial purposes. The town- 

Engiand county, were grouped into counties 

with a county court for each county. 
The township government performed nearly all 
the work for which local government was neces¬ 
sary. It is true, also, that in Virginia there was 
a division of the county called the parish^ which in 
some ways reminds us of the New England town¬ 
ship. But it was very different from the town- 
TheVirginia sliip, first, iu its fomi of government, 
and, second, in the powers of that gov¬ 
ernment. The Virginia parish was governed by 
twelve vestrymen, who were at first elected by the 
people of the parish, but who afterwards filled 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES 219 


their own vacancies. This is very different from 
the New England town-meeting. The duties of 
the vestrymen were chiefly church duties and the 
care of the poor. 

The township system of local government pre¬ 
vailed throughout New England. The county sys¬ 
tem prevailed, with some variations, throughout 
the southern colonies, where the conditions of life 
were very much alike. In the middle colonies, 
Pennsylvania and New York, we find a mixture 
Local govern- of the two forms. In Pennsylvania the 

ment In Penn¬ 
sylvania. county was much like that of Virginia 

in that it held a large share of the governing pow¬ 
ers ; but it was very unlike it in that its officers 
were elected by the people of the county, instead of 
being appointed by the governor. But Pennsyl¬ 
vania also had a well developed township govern¬ 
ment, with some of the powers exercised by the 
township government in New England. The 
county, however, held the predominant place. 

In New York we also find both county and 
township. But here the township was given 
greater prominence than in Pennsyl¬ 
vania. Town-meetings were held, and 
each township had eight overseers^ like the select¬ 
men of New England. All the township officers 
were elected by the town-meeting. Every year 
each township elected a supervisor^ and the 
supervisors of the several townships in a county 


220 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


constituted the county hoards which had general 
supervision over the county business. 

When the settlement of the west began, the 
northwest was settled largely by people from 
Township and New England and New York; the mid- 
the west. die west by people from the Middle 
Atlantic States; and the southwest by people 
from the South Atlantic States. The result was 
that in the northwest, as in Michigan and Wis¬ 
consin, we find the township form of local govern¬ 
ment given great prominence; in the southwest, 
the county form ; and in the middle west a mixed 
form like that of Pennsylvania and New York. 
Sometimes the county has the supremacy, as in 
Indiana, while in other States the township is 
more prominent, as in Illinois. 

Conditions of life in the Mississippi valley are 
much more like those in Virginia than they are 
tI»waJd"(nred tliose ill New England. The coun- 

“'sSSids. try is level and rich, and devoted 
chiefly to agriculture. The population was, 
therefore, at first altogether rural, and scattered. 
Under these conditions the town-meeting was 
impracticable, as a rule, and the county the more 
natural form of government. But with the in¬ 
crease of population, and the development of 
means of communication, the tendency is to give 
greater prominence to the smaller district. The 
people of the United States are fond of direct 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES 221 


self-government, and the fondness seems to be 
growing stronger instead of weaker. Wlierever 
the people of a community find an opportunity to 
establish direct self-government they prefer it 
to the system of allowing a few representatives to 
do it for them, especially when these representa¬ 
tives do not really represent the will of the people 
(see chapter XVI). This tendency is showing 
itself especially in some of the newer western 
States, as in North Dakota. But it is seen even 
in the southern States that are the home of the 
county system. 

One of the inlluences that have encouraged the 
development of the township system of govern- 
I nf luence of ment in the west is the existence there 

the s:overnn]ent 

survey upon of the towiisliips Surveyed by the 

local govern- ^ 

national government to aid in settling 
the land. When the new western States began to 
organize counties and townships for purposes of 
local government, it was natural that they should 
use the boundary lines already established as the 
boundaries of the political districts. Thus, the six- 
mile square congressional townships became also 
the political, or civil, townships. Counties were 
made by grouping together a number of these town¬ 
ships. This accounts for the regularity in the shape 
of the counties and towiisliips in the western States, 
and even of the States themselves. The pres¬ 
ence of the congressional township was al- 


222 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


ways a suggestion to use it as a division of gov¬ 
ernment. 

Another influence that has done much toward 
the use of a small area for local government is the 
infiuenceof method of the organization of the pub- 
organization. lie scliools ill the west. As we saw in 
chapter XIII, each township in the western States 
had one or two sections reserved for school pur¬ 
poses. The sale of these lands furnished a school 
fund. The schools so provided belonged to the 
whole township, and were therefore usually 
distributed throughout the township in school 
districts, placing a school in easy reach of every¬ 
body. In some cases the townships are not 
divided into school districts, but the schools are 
grouped under township control. But in either 
case, school matters are commonly attended to by 
a meeting of the voters of the district or town¬ 
ship. This is much like a town-meeting, and it 
is only a step further for the voters to petition for 
the right to manage all the affairs of the town¬ 
ship in the same way. This step has actually 
been taken in some States, and the tendency is 
in that direction elsewhere. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Is the township or the county the more important 
division for local rural government in your State? Can you 
explain why? 


THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES 223 


2. Are town meetings ever held in your State? If so, have 
you ever attended one? Describe tlie meeting. 

3. What are the township officers in your State? Make a 
list of them, and state their duties. 

4. How are the various township officers chosen? 

5. Is there any law-making, or legislative, body in your 
township? If so, what kind of laws does it make? 

G. How are the laws enforced in your township? 

7. Are there any courts in your township? If so, what are 
they? What kinds of cases do they try? 

8. IVIake a list of the county officers in your county. State 
their duties. 

9. IIow are the county officers chosen? 

10. What legislative body is there in your county? 

11. What executive olhcers are there? 

12. Do the county legislative officers have any executive 
powers? Do the executive officers have any legislative 
powers? 

13. Are there any county courts in your county? What 

kinds of cases do they try? , 

14. What buildings belong to your county and township? 
What are their uses? 


CHAPTER XVIII 


IHE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. 

In 1790, when the first census was taken, there 
were in the United States only six cities with a 
Rapid growth population of eight thousand or more, 
ofcuies. largest, Philadelphia, had hut 

28,500 people, and altogether the six cities con¬ 
tained 182,000 population. In 1900 there were 
510 cities of eight thousand population or more, 
comprising a total population of 25,000,000. 
New York at the last census had nearly three 
million and a half, while Chicago, which was 
founded only seventy years ago, had nearly a 
million and three-quarters population. In 1790 
but one thirty-third of the total population of 
the country lived in cities; today, cities contain 
one-third of the total population. 

Cities have brought with them pro])lems of com¬ 
munity life and of government that are not found 
in rural communities. Where so many ])eople are 
crowded together, there will be more conllicting 
interests, and the work of harmonizing these in- 


224 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITIES 


225 


terests and securing the fullest satisfaction of the 
proper desires of each is difficult. Each person 
is more dependent upon others for his well-being 
than is the case in rural coinniunities (for exam¬ 
ples of this see pages 38, 39; 67, 68; 93; 106,107; 
130, 131). The mixed character of the population 
found in most large cities also presents problems 
difficult of solution (see chapter YIl). Other 
problems are found in the distribution of the 
population, involving the question of transporta¬ 
tion and that of the crowded tenement districts. 
Still other difficulties arise from the rapidity 
of the growth of the cities to a size orig¬ 
inally unexpected. In the early days of Chi¬ 
cago, for example, men had no idea that it 
would ever be a great city, and many a man. 
Problems of city stopping ill Ohicago in his search for 
government. ^ good placc to Settle for busiiiess, was 

advised to go on to Cairo, at the southern 
end of Illinois, which was expected to be the 
largest city in the State, if not in the west. 
Care is not taken, under such circumstances, to 
plan these young cities for the accommodation 
of future crowds. As it is, American cities 
are constantly being made over. With the 
growth of population additions are made to the 
city that cannot well be made to conform to 
the original plan, often resulting in an unsym- 
metrical appearance, and perhaps in great in- 


226 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


convenience. These and other problems did not 
attract much attention until about thirty 
years ago; but since ‘then city government has 
become one of the greatest problems before the 
American people. 

Cities, like counties and townships, receive 
their right of local self-government from the 
State. Their form of government and 

Cities receive 

seff.gove’rnment powers they may exercise are pre- 
from the state. ^ charter granted by the 

legislature, just as some of the colonies received 
charters from the king. It has been customary 
for the legislature to draft the charter for the city, 
which does not always have even the right of 
ratifying it. And since the charters are often 
long and detailed, and since the legislature usually 
holds the right to change them at Avill, the amount 
of self-government left to the city is often very 
limited. This control over the details of the 
business of cities by legislatures is considered one 
of the chief obstacles to good city gov¬ 
ernment. Legislators from all parts of 
the State, many of them from rural districts, 
cannot know the peculiar needs of the city as well 
as the people themselves. Besides, it is much 
easier for scheming politicians and corrupt cor¬ 
porations to exercise an influence over a few 
legislators than it would be over.the citizens of 
the city themselves. 


Control by 
iCKlsiature. 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITIES 


227 


These evils were especially great when the 
legislature granted to each particular city a 
Tendency Special charter different from the char- 

toward freer 

seif-Kovernment tei’s of other cities. Therefore, in some 
States a reform has been made by enacting a 
general form of charter for all cities, of a given size. 
This secures uniformity, and prevents constant 
meddling with the affairs of a particular city. 
A more important step toward self-government in 
cities has been taken in a few States, where the 
people of a city are allowed to appoint a com¬ 
mittee of their own number to draft their charter 
which is then laid before the peoi)le for their 
ratification, and then before the legislature for 
theirs. The National Municipal League a few 
years ago drew up a model charter^ which has been 
adopted with slight variations in a number of 
cities. 

The form of government of cities in the United 
States is, in a general way, alike everywhere, and 
similar to that of the States and of the nation. 
There is always a legislative branch, an executive 
branch, and a judicial branch. But in the organ¬ 
ization of these branches, and in their relations 
to each other, there are great differences among 
the cities, and between the cities and the State 
and national governments. The judicial branch of 
city governments consists of police, or justices’, 
courts, often with a superior court. But these are 


228 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


a part of the State judicial system, and will be 
mentioned in the next chapter. 

The legislative branch of city government is the 
council. Its members are elected by the people, 
the city being divided into wards, from 
city council. of wliicli 0110 01* iiioi’e representa¬ 

tives are chosen. In some cases the council con¬ 
sists of tAVO chambers, an upper chamber, or board 
of aldermen, and a lower chamber, or common council. 
The upper chamber is always the smaller, and is 
sometimes chosen by general election; that is, by a 
vote of all the people, and not by wards. The 
term of office of councilmen is always short, 
usually one or two years. Their salaries are 
usually small. For the transaction of business 
the council is organized into committees, such 
as the committees on streets, on public build¬ 
ings, etc. The mayor ordinarily presides over 
the meetings of the council, and sometimes has 
the power to veto its acts. 

The council does not have very great powers as 
a law-making body, since they extend only to 
matters of local interest that are not 

Its powers. 

regulated by State laAV. The most 
important legislative power of the council is that 
of controlling taxation and expenditures. But in 
many cities even this has been placed in 
the hands of a special board of estimates. An¬ 
other important power of the council is 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITIES 


229 


that of granting franchises (see pages 62 and 181). 

Able men sometimes serve in the councils 
of their cities. But as a rule the small sala¬ 
ries paid, and the slight powers going with the 
office, are not attractive to the best business 
men of a community. They seek rather to avoid 
tlie burden and responsi])ility of the service. On 
the other hand, the opportunities for making 
Its defects nioiiey by dishonest means, in selling 
franchises, letting contracts fraudu¬ 
lently, and in numerous other ways, are a 
temptation to a certain class of men to seek 
the office for this purpose. And in large cities 
there are always those who, dishonest themselves, 
seek to elect men to the council who will aid their 
evil schemes, or overlook their wrong-doings. City 
councils have thus sometimes aided in defrauding 
the people of their rights, while some of their 
members have dishonestly gained fortunes at the 
expense of the people. The most direct way of 
preventing this is for the good citizens of each ward- 
to unite in efforts to elect honest and capable men. 

The executive branch of city governments con¬ 
sists of a mayor, together with a num- 

Execuflve. 

ber of administrative hoards or chiefs, and 
a large number of subordinate officials and employes. 

The mayor is now now elected by popu- 

The mayor. 

lar vote in all cities, f or a term varying 
from one to five years. His salary also varies 


230 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


from a very small sum to $15,000 in New York City. 

The work of administering the business of a 
large city is so great and so complex that it has 

AdmiDistrative Subdivided. Hence there are 

departments. various administrative departments un¬ 
der the supervision of heads or boards. Perhaps 
the most important of these is the department 
that manages the money affairs of the city. 
There is always a treasurer and sometimes other 
financial officers in this department. We have 
heard before of the health department^ usually man¬ 
aged by a board (see page 70) ; the^rc department 
(page 8(5) and the police department (page 91), both 
of which are sometimes united under the super¬ 
vision of a hoard of safety ; the street department 
(page 180) and the buildmy department (pages 87, 
88), also sometimes conil)ined under a board of 
public works. The street cleaniny department (pages 
73, 74) is often separate from the street depart¬ 
ment, which looks after the construction and 
repairing of the streets. The department of educa¬ 
tion is under the management of a board of school 
commissioners (page 144). These are only a few of 
the administrative branches found in our various 
cities, and each one of these is usually sub¬ 
divided into several divisions or bureaus. Under 
them is a vast army of subordinate officers and 
employes. 

The boards and chiefs at the head of the depart- 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITIES 


231 


ments are sometimes elected by the people, 
Miniiinioi sometimes appointed by the council, 

executive soiii6tini6s cippoiiited by the mayor, and 

powers. . ’ 

occasionally appointed by the governor 
of the State. Police commissioners are sometimes 
appointed in the last named manner. The 
appointment of officers is an executive work, and 
when it is done by the council it gives that body 
executive duties as well as legislative. Indeed the 
executive departments, like those of streets and 
buildings, are often, especially in smaller cities, 
managed entirely by committees of the council. 
There is thus not a sharp division in cities between 
the legislative and executive branches of govern¬ 
ment, such as we find in State and national 
governments. Not only does the council exercise 
executive powers, but some of the administra¬ 
tive boards have legislative powers. Thus, the . 
board of estimates (page 228) exercises the im¬ 
portant legislative power of apportioning taxes 
and expenditures. The school board often has 
legislative powers of some importance. 

There has always been a fear, in America, of 
giving any one man too much power. This has 
Concentration led to a foudiiess for electing by popular 
tVmayS." vote, aiid for short terms, most of the 
city officers, in the belief that by so doing the 
people could keep their hands directly upon 
the administration of the city’s business. But in 


232 


THE COMMUNITY AND TtlE CITI2EN 


the complexity of the affairs of a city, and with the 
numerous officers necessary to manage them, it is 
impossible for the people to do this. When any¬ 
thing goes wrong it has been found almost impos¬ 
sible to fix the responsibility upon anyone. And 
in connection with the vast sums of money that 
are handled in city government, and in the grant¬ 
ing of franchises and the letting of contracts, 
there is abundant opportunity for things to go 
wrong. Therefore the tendency has been growing 
in our best governed cities to give the mayor full 
powers of appointment to, and removal from, 
office, at least in the case of the more responsible 
positions, and then to hold him responsible for the 
acts of his appointees. The appointment of the 
subordinate officials and employes is in the hands 
of the mayor or of the heads of the various 
departments. 

City government has suffered greatly from the 
spoils system of appointment to the civil service 
Political (page 206). Every time a new mayor 

parties and city . i i j i • i 

government. is elected, wliicli IS frequently, in 
most American cities, he appoints new boards 
and heads of departments, and these, in turn, 
remove all the subordinates in their depart¬ 
ments to make way for personal or political 
friends. One of the chief causes for this is 
the part that the national political parties take 
in city elections. But national political questions 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITIES 


233 


have no place in city elections. Cities have local 
self-government in order to manage their local 
business, such as paving streets, granting fran¬ 
chises, protecting property and health. These are 
purely business matters that demand business 
ability and honesty on the part of those who 
manage them, and have no relation to the great 
national issues that divide the national parties 
against each other. But the national parties 
retain their hold upon city affairs partly to pre¬ 
vent party spirit and interest from flagging in the 
period between national elections, and partly to 
have at their disposal the vast number of city 
offices as rewards for faithful party workers in the 
community. The result of this is that not only 
the responsible positions at the head of adminis¬ 
trative departments, but minor positions, such as 
those of policemen and of clerks in the city offices, 
are often filled with men who have some claim 
upon the party in power, but none upon the confi¬ 
dence of the people. 

Progress is now being made, however, in the 
direction of removing cities from partisan control, 
civu service means of doing this is by holding 

reform. elections at a different time from 

State and national elections, in the hope 
of avoiding confusion between local and na¬ 
tional questions. But more important than this 
is the introduction of the merit system into the 


234 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


appointment of city officials (see page 208 ). 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. What causes le‘l to the rapid growth of American cities? 

2. Investigate your city cliarter with respect to the follow¬ 
ing points: By whom was it drafted? Did the people of the 
city have any voice in determining what the charter should 
contain? Has it ever been changed, and if so, how? Is it 
a special charter for your city alone, or is it a general charter, 
like that of other cities of the same size? 

3. Investigate your city council with respect to the following 
points: Has it one or two chambers? How are its members 
chosen? How many members from each ward? What is their 
term of office? What are the qualifications for councilmen? 
What is their salary? Where and how often do they meet? 
Who presides at its meetings? What are the important com¬ 
mittees of the council ? 

4. If access can be had to the city ordinances, examine them 
sufficiently to make a report on the general class of subjects 
dealt with. Does your city council have the taxing power? 

5. How is the mayor of your city chosen? What is his 
salary? His term of office? Is the mayor of your city often re¬ 
elected for a second and third term? 

(). Does the mayor in your city have large appointing pow¬ 
ers? Does he have full power of removal from office? Is he 
held responsible for the acts of the various administrative 
departments? Does he have the veto power over the acts of 
the council ? 

7. Make a list of the administ rative departments of your city 
government. Report on the organization of each department. 
How are the heads of the various departments chosen? What 
are the duties of each department? 

8. Do any of these administrative departments have legis¬ 
lative power? Does the council have any executive powers? 

Ul). Ascertain about how many persons are emi)loyed by the 
city government. In what departments do you find the largest 
force of employes? 

10. Does the merit system of appointment prevail in your 
city? If so, to what extent? 


CHAPTER XIX. 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE. 

Eacli State in the Union has a written consti¬ 
tution. This constitution is the fundamental law 
state State, upon which the structure 

or government rests. It is a law 
made by the people tliemselves, is superior to 
any law made by the government, and cannot 
be changed in any way except by the people 
themselves. The constitutions of the original 
thirteen States were adopted when these States 
declared their independence of England, and 
took the place of the colonial charters which had 
been granted by the king. They were a substi¬ 
tution of self-government for government by the 
king. The constitutions of all the other States 
were adopted when these States gained admis¬ 
sion to the Union. 

Each State constitution was framed by a con¬ 
vention of delegates chosen by the people for this 
purpose. In many cases, but not all, the consti- 
235 


236 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


tution so framed was submitted to the people for 
their ratification. As time passes, defects are 

Amendment and foUlld ill these COllstitutioilS, Or COlldi- 

revision. tioiis cliaiige to sucli ail extent that 
clauses once appropriate now become useless or 
harmful. It then becomes necessary to amend 
the constitution to correct its weak points ; or, if 
the changes to be made are very numerous, com¬ 
plete revision may be necessary. The con¬ 
stitution itself provides for both of these 
things. 

Amendment of the constitution is merely pass¬ 
ing a law changing some particular provision in it. 
But it is a law passed by the people, and not by 
the legislature. The usual process is for the 
legislature to enact the amendment and then 
submit it to the vote of the people. If the 
people reject it, or if a sufficiently large vote 
is not cast, as sometimes happens, the amend¬ 
ment fails. Kevision is a more or less complete 
refraining of the constitution. The usual method 
of doing this is for the legislature to ask the 
people to vote on the question whether the 
constitution shall be revised or not. If they 
vote in the affirmative, a convention is called 
for the purpose, to which the people elect del¬ 
egates. The revised constitution is then 
usually submitted to the vote of the people. 

The constitution thus represents the supreme 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 


237 


will of the people, and is intended to prevent 
The constitution eiicroachmeiit upon their rights 

supreme will aiid liberties either by themselves or 

of the people. 

by the government which the constitu¬ 
tion creates. One of the most important parts 
of every State constitution, therefore, is the 
hill of rights, which is a detailed statement of 
the rights which must not be infringed upon 
by the government (see page 23). In almost 
every State, the bill of rights occupies a 
prominent place in the first part of the con¬ 
stitution. 

The main part of each constitution contains the 
plan of government. While the governments of the 
General plan different States differ in details to meet 
of Kovernment. peculiar coiiditioiis of eacli, the gen¬ 
eral plan is the same in all. The federal consti¬ 
tution guarantees to each State a republican form of 
government (Art lY, sec. 4). In each State there 
is a division of the government into a legislative, 
an executive, and a judicial branch, and the powers 
of each branch are separated from those of the 
others much more completely than is usually the 
case in cities (chapter XVIII). T\\\^ separation of 
powers is one of the strong features of American 
government in both State and nation. Its purpose 
is to prevent any one man, or group of men, from 
acquiring too much authority and becoming des¬ 
potic. The legislature may refuse to grant money 


238 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


that it is necessary for the executive to have, as 
often happened in the colonies, or, if the execu¬ 
tive acts contrary to the constitution, he may be 
Checks and impeached by the legislature. If the 
balances. legislature steps beyond the bounds 

fixed by the people in the constitution, the judicial 
branch may declare the law null and void. And 
so there is a system of checks and balances between 
the branches of government for the preservation 
of the liberties of the people. 

As we learned in chapter II, a community con¬ 
sists of a group of people united, in a common 

locality, under common laws^ for the satis- 

The legislature 

faction of their common interests. 
There must be a law-makinc] branch of government 
first of all. The legislature is in this sense^ there¬ 
fore, the most important of the three branches of 
government. In all the States, at the present time, 
it consists of two chambers, or houses. The upper 
chamber or senate, is usually about one-third the size 
of the lower chamber, or house of representatives. In 
the two-chambered legislature we have another 
illustration of the system of checks and balances; 
Checks upon the for every bill, or proposed measure, must 

law-making 

power. pass eacli house separately before it can 

become a law. The people have always been 
afraid- of the law-making power, and have hedged 
it around with restrictions and provisions to make 
hasty law-making difficult. For this reason not 


tup: govp:rnmp:nt of the state 


239 


only must the law pass each house separately, 
but in most States the executive is given a check 
upon the legislature in his veto power. A bill to 
become a law must be signed by the governor. 

The members of the legislature are chosen by 
popular vote from districts into which the State 
is divided. In many of the States the legislature 
meets but once in two years, and its sessions are 
limited to a period of from forty to ninety days, 
both of which provisions are intended to prevent 
too much law-making. The lieutenant-governor 
usually presides over tlie senate, while the house 
of representatives elects ^speaker to preside. The 
speaker and the president of tlie senate have the 
power of appointing the committees in the two 
houses, by which most of the business of law¬ 
making is done. 

The law-making power of the legislature ex¬ 
tends to any subject whatever, except as it is 
limited by the constitution (Art. I, sec. 

Restrictions 

upon the legis- ]^()) ]aws, and the treaties of the 

lature by the ^ ’ 

constitution. United States, or by the constitution of 
the State. The earlier State constitutions were 
short, and contained few restrictions upon the 
power of the legislature. But partly through 
the love of the people for direct self-government, 
and partly because of a growing fear of the power 
of legislatures, the tendency has been to insert 
more details in the constitutions of the newer 


240 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


States, and to leave less to the discretion 
of the legislatures. This fear of the legis¬ 
lature is not altogether justified; for, while 
unwise and corrupt legislation does occur too 
frequently, our legislators are usually fairly 
representative of the people. Besides, when sus¬ 
picion is constantly cast upon them, and their 
powers are constantly restricted, it tends to pre¬ 
vent able men from accepting nomination for 
election to the legislature. The quality of the 
legislature is thus lowered by suspecting it and 
restricting its powers too much. 

Another method of checking the power of 
the legislature, and at the same time securing 
Initiative nnd ^^^^tre direct self-government, is by the 
referendum. kiiowii as the initiative and the refer¬ 

endum. The initiative means that the people 
have the power to initiate^ or propose, legisla¬ 
tion which the legislature must enact. By this 
plan, when a certain percentage of the voters 
propose a law to the legislature, the lat¬ 
ter passes the law and then refers it to the 

vote of the people for their approval or disap¬ 
proval. This referring the law to the vote of 
the people is the referendum. By the refer¬ 

endum, also, any law that’ has been passed by 
the legislature may be brought before the 

people for their vote, if a certain propor¬ 
tion of the voters demand it. This plan 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 


241 


IS in use in a few of the western States. 

A great many influences are brought to bear 
upon State legislatures, which determine more 
Influences upon less Completely the character of the 

leslslaflon. . 

laws passed. Legislation is often dic¬ 
tated by a political boss (see page 201), who 
may, in turn, be the representative of rich cor¬ 
porations seeking legislation favorable to their 
interests. Bribery of legislators by such corpora¬ 
tions is not unknown, and sometimes becomes 
even common. Citizens and corporations who 
have special interests which they wish the leg¬ 
islature to favor go, or send their representatives, 
to the legislative halls and committee rooms, 
and to the hotels where the legislators are 
staying, and try to bring influences to bear upon 
them to secure the passage of the laws they want. 
This is known as lobbying. 

Legislatures watch for every expression of 
public opinion on questions that come before them. 
p„bnc This may not always be, unfortunately, 

opinion, because of a patriotic desire to serve 
the people; but because each legislator knows 
that re-election depends upon his conduct in ofiice. 
But whatever his motive may be, the opinion of 
the people expressed through the newspapers, by 
public meetings, or by personal letters, has a 
great influence. This is one of the strongest 
safe-guards of self-government. For, no matter 


242 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


how strong the influences of other kinds, law¬ 
makers seldom dare to meet the disapproval 
of the people when it is clearly and strongly 
expressed. From this it is evident that the 
responsibility of the citizen for his own self- 
government does not end when he elects his rep¬ 
resentative to the legislature. He must have 
opinions of his own on public questions, and must 
make them known. 

In every community there is bound to be 
more or less conflict of interests (see page 21). 

The law is intended to harmonize 

The courts. 

these differences. But the question 
is constantly arising as to how the law applies in 
a particular case, or a question as to the mean¬ 
ing of the law. To decide such questions the 
State constitution provides a system of courts^ 
constituting the judicial branch of govern¬ 
ment. They are the stronghold of the citizen 
against injustice. 

The most numerous courts in the system 
are the justices^ courts^ at least one of which is 
. . , ^ to be found in every community, 
easily accessible to the people. They 
are the lowest grade of State courts, before 
which are tried petty offenses against law and 
order, and trifling disputes over property. The 
judges who preside over these courts are called 
justices of the peace. In cities there are other 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 


243 


courts of the same class, known as police 
courts^ made necessary by the greater number of 
misdemeanors committed in city life. 

Next above the justices’ courts are the district,' 
or circuit, courts. They are called district courts 
because the State is divided into 
judicial districts (see page 64 ), each of 
which usually contains several counties, but 
which has a single court of this grade. They 
are called circuit courts because the presiding 
judge holds the court first in one county of the 
district, and then in another, until the circuit of 
the counties is completed. 

It is before the circuit or district courts that 
the great mass of cases of importance are brought 
for trial. Many cases first tried before a justice’s 
court are appealed to the district court for a second 
trial. This is because, in the first place, district 
judges are more able and better trained men than 
the justices of the peace; and because, in the 
second place, a jury tidal may always be had in 
the district court. The Constitution of the United 
States provides that every man shall have the 
right to trial by jury in all criminal cases, and in 
civil cases involving a sum of more than twenty 
dollars (Amend. VI and VII). 

In large cities there are often criminal courts, 
and other special courts, to meet the needs 
of city life, and to relieve the district court of a 


244 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


portion of tlie work that would otherwise come 
before it. In some States there are also county 
city and GOiu^ts for eacli county, besides probate 
:ounty courts. chanccvy courts, and others, for the 

trial of special classes of cases. 

The highest of the State courts is the supreme 
wurt^ of which there is one in each State wliich 
usually holds its sessions at the State 
Capital, but which sometimes holds ses¬ 
sions in several cities for convenience. It consists 
Df several judges, who are presided over by a chief 
justice. The work of this court is almost alto¬ 
gether appellate; that is, the cases tried before it 
are usually appealed to it from the lower courts. 
There are, however, certain classes of cases that 
3ome before the -supreme court for first trial, 
such as cases in which the olRcial action of State 
afficers is in question. 

In the first constitutions of the original thirteen 
States it was provided that the judges should be 
rhe appoint- appointed by the governor or chosen by 
nent of judges, legislature. But as the movement 

toAvard a more democratic government grew, the 
States began to provide for the election of their 
judges by the people. In most of the States, at 
bhe present time, the judges are so chosen, 
bhough in some they are appointed hj the gover- 
tior, and in others by the legislature. The 
election of the judges by the people, at the same 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 


245 


time witli other State oflicerR, tends to make tliis 
selection a matter of party politics. This is 
especially true when they are elected for short 
terms, as is usually the case. The courts should 
be entirely removed from partisan disputes, and 
this is l)est accomplished by a life tenure of office, 
as is the case in the federal courts. 

As in city governments, the executive branch 
of State government is divided and subdivided 

into numerous departments, bureaus. 

The executive. 

and commissions. The chief executive 
officer, however, is the governor, who is elected by 
the people, and whose term of office varies from 
one to four years. His chief duty is to see that 
the laws of the State are faithfully executed. As 
we have seen (page 177), the enforcement of State 
law is left largely in the hands of the local gov¬ 
ernments. But in case of inability on the part of 
local authorities to enforce the law, the governor 
may interfere with the militia, of which he is the 
commander-in-chief (see page 95). 

The governor has other powers and duties. 
Among these are the legislative powers of vetoing 

Tfiepowersof already mentioned, and of sug- 

the governor, gesting matters for legislative action in 

a message to the legislature. He usually has full 
power to pardon criminals convicted in the courts, 
although this power is in some States placed in 
the hands of a hoard of pardons. He has the power 


246 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


Lieutenant- 

governor. 


of appointment to oifice in cases not otherwise 
provided for in the constitution. But this iDower, 
and that of removal from office, are often re¬ 
stricted by requiring that appointments and 
removals must be confirmed by the legislature. 
He also has social duties; such as attending im¬ 
portant meetings and celebrations, extending tlie 
hospitality of Hie State to honored visitors, etc. 

In most of the States there is a lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor^ whose chief duty is to preside over the 
senate. He acts as governor when 
the latter is absent from the State, 
or is unable to perform his duties. And 
in case of the governor’s death he succeeds to 
the office. 

The most important of the other executive 
officers are the treasurer; the auditor {ov comptroller), 
who manages the financial affairs of 
the State, and instructs the treasurer 
what moneys to pay outf the secretary of state^ 
who keeps the records of the State; the attor¬ 
ney-general^ who is the legal adviser of the execu¬ 
tive heads, and represents the State in court; the 
superintendent of schools. These officers are usually 
elected by the people, and are responsible to the 
people and not to the governor. This was in¬ 
tended to give the people more direct control 
over the executive business of the State, and 
to prevent the governor from assuming too much 


The heads of 
departments. 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 


247 


power. But in recality it weakens the executive, 
Executive divides responsibility. It sometimes 

^ liappens that the different executive 

olhcers differ among themselves and with the 
governor in policy, and antagonize each other 
instead of working liarmonionsly together. 

Besides these executive departments there are 
numerous bureaus and commissions for the adminis- 

oiher adminis- ^ration of different kinds of State ])usi- 
trativedivisions, Tlius there are boards of health, 

hoards of charities and cojreetion, fish commissions, 
forestry bureaus, and railway commissions. There are 
hoards of trustees for the various State institu¬ 
tions, sucli as the institutions for the insane, tlie 
blind, and orphans. There are State librarians, 
State geologists, mine inspectors and other officers 
too numerous to mention. These officers are 
usually appointed by tlie governor or by tlie 
legislature. Beneath them is a host of minor 
officials and employes. 

FOR INVESTIGATION. 

1. Look up the history of the adoption of constitutions 
by the States at the time of the declaration of independ¬ 
ence. 

2. Report on the first constitutional convention of your 
State. 

3. Has your State constitution ever been revised? How many 
times? How was it done? 

4. How many amendments have been made to your State 
constitution? AVhat is the method of amendment provided in 
your constitution? 


218 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


5. What is the method of impeachment of State oflicials? 
For what causes may an ollicial be impeached? 


0 . 

Discuss in class the system of checks 

and 

bal- 

ances. 



7. 

AVhat is the process of passing a law? 



8. 

Describe the organization of the legislature. 

How 

often 


does it meet? How long are its sessions? 

9. AVhat rc'strictions are placed upon the legislature by Art. 
I, sec. 10, of the federal Constitution? 

10. Is the legislature in your State positively forbidden 
to do certain things bv the State constitution? What are 
they? 

11. AVhat different courts exist in your State? 

12. What is a grand jury? A petit jury? How are jury¬ 
men selected? 

13. If you live in a large city, what special city courts 
exist there? 

14,. How are the State judges chosen in your State? AAdiat is 
their term of ollice? 

15. Debate the question, “The judges of the State courts 
sliould be appointed by the governor for life.” 

K). What are the executive departments in your State? How" 
are their heads chosen? 

17. Does the governor of your State have the pardoning 
l>ower, or is there a board of pardons? Is the pardoning power 
often exercised? 


CHAPTER XX. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION. 

The American colonists sought their independ¬ 
ence because of tlie desi:)otism of king and par- 

The weakness liament, and had instilled in them a 
of the govern" 

mentunder the feai* and hatred of a powerful central- 

Articles of 

Confederation, j^ed government. When they declared 
their independence, therefore, it was as thirteen 
States, independent of each other as well as of 
England. They did create a central government 
under the Articles of Confederation; but this 
government was only for purposes of common de¬ 
fense. It had no poAver to tax the people; it had 
no executive authority to compel them to do its 
bidding. The experience of the people under 
the Confederation, however, showed them that 
they had gone to the other extreme. They found 
that there were common interests among the 
States that were not being protected, and conflict¬ 
ing interests that were rapidly leading to disunion 
and anarchy (page Tl^l). They discovered the 


249 


250 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


truth that no government is even worse than a 
despotic government. 

A convention of leading men was therefore 
called in 1787 for the purpose of amending the 
Thecoasiitu. Weak poiiits of the Articles of Oonfed- 
^ona conven these Articles provided 

that no amendment could be made without the 
unanimous consent of all the States; and this 
could not be obtained from the jealous and quar¬ 
relling States. In this extremity the wise leaders 
of the convention determined to frame an entirely 
new Constitution, totally changing the form of 
government, and to submit it to the people for 
their acceptance or rejection. This they did; 
and after the greatest difficulty the new Oonsti- 
tion was ratified by a sufficient number of States 
to make it binding upon them. It was in reality 
another revolution, though accomplished peace¬ 
fully and in order. 

The first great problem that the convention had 
to solve was the creation of a government that was 
Distribution stroiig eiiougli to pi’otect the common 
of powers. interests of all the States, while it was 
not so powerful as to destroy their independence. 
This problem was solved by the carefully adjusted 
distribution of powers referred to on page 174. Firsts 
there were certain powers granted exclusively to the 
federal government^ such as the making of war and 
peace, making treaties and alliances, sending 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 


251 


and receiving ambassadors, regulating foreign and 
interstate commerce, coining money, and some 
others. Second, there were certain powers to he 
exercised concurrentlij by botli State and national 
governments, such as the power of taxation and 
of borrowing money. Third, there were powers 
denied to the federal government (see Art. I, sec.' 9; 
Amends. I-VIII). Fourth, certain powers were 
denied to the States (Art. I, sec. 10). Fifth, all 
“powers not delegated to the United States by 
the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the States 
are reserved to the States respectively or to the 
people” (Amend. X) . 

In the general plan of the national government 
the convention was naturally guided by the plan 
of the State governments. Provision was there¬ 
fore made for a division into a legislative, an 
executive and a judicial branch, with the same 
separation of powers between them that is found 
in the States.' 

The question at once arose as to the basis of 
representation in the Congress, which was to con- 
RepresentafJon llOUSeS. SOTlie of the dele- 

fn Congress. g^tes, representing the smaller States, 

believed'that all the States should have equal 
representation, thus keeping prominent the idea 
that the Union was a mere league of States. 
Delegates from the larger States, on the other 
hand, arguing that the States together constituted 


252 


THE COMMUNITY ANT) THE CITIZEN 


a single nation, believed that the several States 
should be represented in proportion to their 
population. The contest was settled by a com¬ 
promise, according to which each State was to 
have two representatives in the Senate, and pro¬ 
portional representation in the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. 

The members of the House of Representatives 
are elected by direct vote of the people, one from 
The Senate and oacli of the districts iiito wliicli each 
Representatives. State is divided. The number of con¬ 
gressional districts in each State is determined by 
the population of the State at the most recent 
census. The members of the Senate are consid¬ 
ered as representing their States rather than the 
peopli3. It was provided that they should be 
elected by the State legislatures (Art. I, sec. 3). 
This method of election was also probably de¬ 
signed to secure an abler set of men than would 
be likely by popular election. A higher age 
qualification was fixed for membership in the 
Senate than in the House (Art. I, sec. 2, clause 2; 
sec. 3, clause 3). The term of office of senators is 
six years, while that of representatives is only two. 
Besides, the term of^office of only one-third of the 
senators expires at the same time, so that at least 
tWo-thirds of the Senate is always experienced, 
while the House may be almost entirely made 
over at any election. These and other causes 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 253 

have made the Senate a more dignified and 
conservative body than the House of Kepre- 
sentatives. 

The greater conservatism of the Senate was 
intended, in part, as a check upon the impetu¬ 
osity of the direct representatives of the peo¬ 
ple, and in part to fit it for its special ex¬ 
ecutive duties. For the Senate must confirm all 
appointments made l)y the President, and 
must, by a two-thirds vote, ratify all trea¬ 
ties made by the President before they can 
go into effect (Art. II, sec. 2). Tlie Senate 
moves more slowly in its deliberations than 
the House, takes more time for debate, and 
exercises a steadying influence upon the lower 
and more numerous body. On the other hand, 
the House serves as a check upon the Senate 
and has certain powers not held by the latter. 
All bills for raising revenue must originate in 
the House, although the Senate may suggest 
amendments to them (Art. I, sec. 7). All other 
bills may originate in ^either house, but 
must pass each house separately. The House 
has the sole power of impeachment; but the 
Senate must act as the court to try the 
impeachment (Art, I, sec. 2, clause 5; sec. 3, 
clause 6). 

It is believed by a good many that the 
present method of electing senators should 


254 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


be changed to election by popular vote. This 
feeling is due in part to the general growth of 

Method of elect- ^ democratic spirit; but it is also 
fng senators. Certain more or less serious 

evils that have grown up about the present 
method. It frequently becomes a partisan 
contest, sometimes managed by bosses who are 
under the control of corrupt corporations. Such 
a contest not only takes a great deal of the 
time of the legislature that ought to be 
devoted to other business, but it sometimes 
results in the election of senators who are 
said to be representatives of powerful private 
interests, rather than of the interests of the 
people. A great deal is being said these days 
to the elfect that the Senate is becoming a 
powerful oligarchy, encroaching upon the powers 
of the House, on the one hand, and upon those 
of the President, on the other hand. It is 
thought by many that direct popular election of 
the senators would greatly lessen these evils. 
The change would require an amendment of the 
Constitution. Such an amendment has been 
proposed in the House of Representatives sev¬ 
eral times, but the Senate would not agree to 
it, and therefore the amendment failed. In one 
or two of the western States an attempt has 
been made to accomplish the same end 
without an amendment, by having the people 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 


255 


vote for their choice of senators previous to 
their election by the legislature. This 
amounts to a direct nomination by the peo¬ 
ple, and it is supposed that the legislature, 
being representative of the people, will feel 
bound to elect the people’s choice. 

One of the chief defects of the government 
under the Articles of Oonfederation was the 

TheExecuHve. ^ strong executive. And 

yet the memory of the despotism 
of the king caused opposition, in the conven¬ 
tion of 1787, to the establishment of a single 
executive head. . Experience in the State gov¬ 
ernments, however, had shown that a single 
executive head was not so dangerous if his 
powers were properly limited and checked. 
The result was that the executive branch of the 
national government was made to consist of a 
President, with a short term of four years, 
and who shall he removable from office by im¬ 
peachment if he ventures to assume powers 
not conferred upon him. There was also to be 
a Vice-President, who, however, has no exec¬ 
utive powers except in the event of the Presi¬ 
dent’s death, when he assumes that office. He 
is presiding officer over the Senate, but he has 
no vote in legislation except in case of a tie. 
The President and Vice-President are elected by 
the peculiar electoral system described on page 189 


256 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


(see Ooiistitiition, Art. II, sec. 1, and Amend. 
XII). This method, originally intended to remove 
the choice from the control of the masses, fails 
to do so, and is now a mere form, because 
of the development of the party system of mak¬ 
ing nominations. 

While in the States the executive power is 
divided between the governor and other ofligers 
Conceniration (see page 247), ill the national govern- 
power. ment it is concentrated completely in 

the hands of the President. It is true that there 
are various executive departments^ which have 
been created by Congress. But the heads of these 
departments are appointed by the President with 
the advice and consent of the Senate (Art. II, sec. 
2 ,clause 2) and are removalile by him. They are 
responsible to him alone, and carry out the policy 
of government dictated by him. If anything goes 
wrong in any of the executive departments, the 
people hold the President responsible for it, and 
may show their disapproval at the next election. 

The President’s power to make appointments, 
like his power to make treaties with foreign na¬ 
tions, is limited by requiring the advice and con¬ 
sent of the Senate. On the other hand, the Pres¬ 
ident has a check upon legislation in his veto 
power. But Congress may pass a law over the 
President’s veto by a two-thirds vote. The Pres¬ 
ident has some further inlluence in legislation by 


THE GOVERXJMEXT OF THE XATIOX 


257 


his power to call extra sessions of Congress to con¬ 
sider definite questions, and through liis messages 
to Congress, in which he suggests questions that, 
in his opinion, demand legislative action. 

In the appointment of the suhordinate officers 
and employes of the civil service is one of the 
Encroachment places where Congress, and especially 

upon the Presi- ,, r, . . i „ 

dent’s appoint- the feeiiate, IS accused of encroaching 

Ing power by ° 

Congress. upoii the powei's of the President. The 
latter, in seeking for suitable persons to fill the 
thousands of places at his disposal in all parts of 
the country, has naturally come to depend largely 
upon the senators and representatives from the 
different sections for information regarding the 
qualifications of the candidates. In the course of 
time it was natural that the senators and repre¬ 
sentatives should come to expect to he called 
upon for their advice. From this it is only a step 
to dictating to the President what appointments 
he should make in the several States and congres¬ 
sional districts and to the belief that these offices 
are at the disposal of the congressmen rather than 
of the President. The offices that thus come 
under the control of the congressmen are known 
as their patronage. The patronage of a member 
of Congress is very valuable to him, because 
by the promise of appointments he is able to 
retain the support of influential persons in his 
district or State. The President has often been 


258 


TIIP] COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


forced to accede to tlie Avislies of congressmen in 
tlie matter of appointment by their refusal to 
enact legislation that he wishes unless he does 
accede. 

In this way the Congress has in a measure taken 
upon itself some of the powers tliat belong to the 
President. Generally speaking, it has lowered 
the efficiency of the civil service by eiicour 
aging the spoils system. This evil has in part 
been checked by the introduction of the merit 
system of appointment to a large proportion 
of the offices in the civil service (see page 208). 
But there is still much need for reform in this 
direction. It is a dangerous thing to allow one 
branch of our government to encroach upon the 
powers of another, and citizeiis should rebuke any 
tendencies of this kind that appear. 

The Constitution provides for a system of 
federal courts entirely distinct from the State 
courts. It says, '‘’The judicial power of 
The judiciary, -j-pg i^jj^ited States shall be vested in one 

Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the 
Congress may from time to time ordain and 
establish” (Art. Ill, sec. 1). The number of 
judges in the Supreme Court is determined by 
Congress, and at present is nine. They meet at 
Washington and are presided over by one of their 
number, who is designated as the Chief Justice. 
The judges of all the federal courts are appointed 


THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 


250 


by the President and hold office ^‘’during good 
behavior” (Art. Ill, sec. 1). In addition to the 
Supreme Court, Congress has created nine circuit 
courts^ each circuit including several States; nine 
circuit courts of appeal; and eighty district courts. 

The powers of the federal courts are stated in 
the Constitution (Art. Ill, sec. 2). In general. 
Powers of the Said to iiiclude cases of a 

federal courts. j.* i ^ ^ ^ j * 

national or interstate character. A 
case first brought to trial before a State court 
may bo appealed to the Supreme Court of the 
United States when the Constitution, the laws, or 
the treaties of the United States are involved. 
Its decisions are final over those of the Stat^ 
courts. It is the final authority (under the peo¬ 
ple themselves) in the interpretation of the 
Constitution. It may declare null and void an act 
of Congress, or any State law, which in its opinion 
is contrary to the provisions of the Constitution. 
It might seem that the Supreme Court thus has 
power that might make it despotic, and give it 
control over the other branches of the govern¬ 
ment. But it has no means of enforcing a 
despotic judgment. That must be done by the 
executive. If the court should attempt to push 
its authority too far, it would find itself in con- 
llict with both Congress and the executive. At 
the elections the people would show whether they 
supported the court or the other branches of gov- 


THE CO^BIUNITY AND TPIE CITIZEY 


2()0 


eriiment. And finally Congress has the weapon of 
impeachment by which offending judges may be 
removed. 

The Supreme court has excited the admiration 
of the world, not* only because of its purpose as 
defender of the Constitution, but because of the 
ability and integrity its judges have shown in 
performing their duty. It has always, with one or 
two possible exceptions, shown a strong disposi¬ 
tion to interpret the Constitution in accordance 
with its intentions, and thus to be strictly repre¬ 
sentative of the people. 

^ FOR INVESTIGATIOX. 

1. Report on tlie story of the Constitutional Convention of 
1787. Also on the ratification of the Constitution by the 
►States. 

2. Study the organization of Congress as provided in the 
Constitution. 

3. Report on the powers of the Speaker of the House of 
Representatives. 

4. Why should bills for the raising of revenue originate in 
the House? 

5. Debate the question, “Senators should be elected by 
popular vote. ’ ’ 

t). Make a list of the powers of the President as contained in 
the Constitution, 

7. What are tire several executive departments? What are 
their duties? Who are the members of the cabinet at the 
present time? 

8. Study the powers of the federal courts as given in the 
Constitution. 

9. Make as complete a list as possible of the different checks 
and balances provided in the organization of the federal gov¬ 
ernment. 


THE CONSTITUTION 


201 


THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

UlJE AMBLE. 

E, the i)eople ot the United States, in order to form a 
more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
(liiilhty, provide for the common defense, promote the j;en- 
eral welfare, and secure the blessiipis of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
for tile United States of America, 

ARTICLE I. 

Section 1. 

^ All lejiislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a 
Senate and House of Representatives. 

Section H. 

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen eveiy second year by the people of the sev¬ 
eral States, and the electors in each State shall have the 
(lualilications re<iuisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the State legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not 
have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been 
sev(‘n years a citizen of the United States, and who shall 
not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which 
he shall be chosen. 

o. Rei»resentatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
among- the several States which may be included within this 
Ibiion, according to their respective numbers, which shall 
be determined by adding to the whole number of free per¬ 
sons, including those bound to service for a term of years, 
and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within 
three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Rep¬ 
resentative: and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
State of \ew Jlanipshire shall be entitled to choose three, 
}f(i.ss<i.chnsetfs eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 
one, Connecticut five, ICew York six. New Jersey four, Penn- 
sylrauid eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Tiryinia ten, 
North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Qeoryia three. 

1, When vacancies happen in the representation from any 
State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of 
('lection to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speak- 
(‘ 1 - and other officers, and shall have the sole power of im¬ 
peachment. 

Section III. 

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 


262 


THE COMMUNITY ANU THE CITIZEN 


two Senators from each State, chosen by the legisl.atnre 
thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediateiy after they shall he assembled in conse¬ 
quence of the tirst election, they shall be divided as eciiially 
as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators 
of the*first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the 
second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the 
fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the 
sixth year, so .that one-third may be chosen every second 
year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise 
during the recess of the legislature of any State, the execu¬ 
tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the 
next Jiieeting of the legislature, which shall then till such 
^acancies. 

.2. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have at¬ 
tained to tlie age of thirty years, and been nine years a citi¬ 
zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-l’resident of the ITnited States shall be I’resi- 
dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be 
(Mpially divided. 

T). The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
Uresident pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, 
or when he shall exercise the office of President of the 
ibiited States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- 
pi'achnients. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be 
on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
States is tried, the Phief Justice shall preside: and no per¬ 
son shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds 
of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend 
further than to removal from office, and dis(pialitication 
to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under 
the United States; but the party convicted shall, neverthe¬ 
less, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment, according to law. 

Section IV. 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for 
Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each 
State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at 
any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as 
to the ])laces of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 
year, and such meetings shall be on the first Monday in 
l)e(‘ember, unless they shall bv Uiav appoint a different dav. 

Section V. 

1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, 
and (imilifications of its own members, and a majority of 
each shall constitute a (luorum to do business; but a smaller 


THE CONSTITUTION 


20 ^ 


luinihor may adjourn from day to day, and may be author¬ 
ized to compel the atteiidaiica? of absent members, in such 
manner, and under such penalties, as each house may pro¬ 
vide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceed- 
in.us, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with 
the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 

•>. Ejich house shall keep a journal of its proceeding's, and 
trom time to time ])ublish the same, exceptinji,' such parts 
as may in tlu'ir judi*:ment reipiire secrecy, and the yeas 
and nays of the members of either house on any (luestion 
shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

4. N(Mther house, duriu.c; the session of (^ont^ress, shall 
Avithont the consent of the other, adjourn for more than 
tbrc(‘ days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
two houses shall be sittini?. 

Hcction TI. 

1. Tbe Senators and Kepresentatives shall receive a com¬ 
pensation for tlH'ir s(M‘vices, to be ascertained by law and 
l»aid out of the 4h-easury of the United States, d’diey shall, 
in all cases exc(‘i>t treason, felony, and breach of th(‘ pea(‘e, 
be privile,ued from arrest durinj>- their attendance at the ses¬ 
sion of tlu'ir respective houses, and in soiui;' to and return- 
in,a: from the same; and for any speech or debate in cither 
hous(' tlu‘y shall not be (luestioiu'd in any other place. 

2. No Senator or liepresentative shall, d'urin.a- the time for 
which h(‘ was elected, be appointed to any civil office un- 
(ha- the authority of the United States, which shall have 
lanai created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been 
incr(‘as(‘d durin.a‘ such time; and no person holdiiii? any 
office under the United States shall be a member of either 
house during- his continuance in office. 

Section YIL 

1. All bills for raisin.u’ revenue shall orijiinate in the 
House of Kepresentatives; but the Senate may propose or 
coiK'ur with amendments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Kep¬ 
resentatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, 
be ])resent(‘d to the Uri'sident of the United States; if be 
api)i-ove he shall siiiii it, but if not he shall return it, with 
his objections, to that house in Avhich it shall have ori.ai- 
nated, who shall enter the obj(‘ctions at larjje on their jour¬ 
nal and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsidera¬ 
tion two thirds of that house shall aaree to pass the bill, 
it shall be sent, to^etlu'r with the objections, to tbe otlnu’ 
house, by which it shall likewise be i‘econsidered, and if 
ai»provc(i by two thirds of that house it shall become a law. 
Itut in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be de¬ 
termined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons 


THE CO.MMUNITY ANJ) THE CITIZEN 


2()4 


votiiii;’ for and aj;ainst the bill shall bo ontoiaal on the jonr- 
nal of ('aoh house respeetively. If any bill shall not be re¬ 
turned by the President within ten days (Sundays exe(‘ptedi 
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be 
a law, in like manner as if he had sijtned it, unless the Con¬ 
gress by their adjournment prevent its return, in whieh 
case it shall not be a law, 

8. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur¬ 
rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be 
necessarv (except on a ((uestion of adjournment) shall be 
presented to the President of the ITiited States; and before 
the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or 
IxMH.u’ disapproved by him, sh.all be repassed by two thirds 
of tile Senate and House of Itepresentatives, according* to 
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

{Section \ III. 

The Coniiress shall have power: 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to jmy th(‘ debts and provide for the common defense and 
.n'eneral welfare of the T^niti'd States; but all duties, imiiosts, 
and excises shall be uniform throuj^hout the United States; 

2. 'To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

o. To re.uulate commerce with forei,i;n nations and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and 
uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout 
the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for¬ 
eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

(). To ])rovide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establisli post-offices and post-roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the ex¬ 
clusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 

t). To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed 
on the high seas and offenses against the law of nations; 

n. To declare war. gr.ant letters of marc pie and n'prisal, 
and make rules concerning captures on land and Avater; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two 
.A'ea I s; 

1.8. 'To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for tlie government and regulation of 
tiv' land and naval forces; 

IT). To iirovide for calling forth the militia to execute 
the hnvs of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel 
invasions; 

1(5. To pro Aide for organizing. 


arming, and disciplining 


THE CONSTITUTION 


2()5 


the militia, and for sovernins’ sneli part of them as may he 
employed in the serviee of the United States, reservin'^- to 
the States respectively the appointment of the oliicers, and 
the authority of training the militia according to the dis¬ 
cipline presci'ibed hy Congress; 

17. To (‘xercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso¬ 
ever over such district (not exceeding ten miles s(piare) as 
may, hy cession of particular States and the acceptance of 
('ongi’ess, become the seat of Oovernment of the United 
States, and to exercise like anthorit^^ over all phu'es pur¬ 
chased by the consemt of the legislature of the State in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga¬ 
zines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful bnildings; and 

18. To make all laws which shall he necessary and prop¬ 
er for carrying into execution the foregoing powei's, and 
all other i)owers vested by this Constitution in the Covern- 
inent of the United States, or in any department or olhcer 
thereof. 

Section IX. 

1. The migi-ation or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one 
thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may 
h(;‘ imi)osed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars 
for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
b(‘ snsi)ended, unless when in cases of rel)ellion or inva¬ 
sion the pnl)lic saUdy may require it. 

d. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, mdess 
in pr<»portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore 
dii-ected to be taken. 

T). No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from 
any State. 

d. No preference shall be given by any regulation of com- 
merc(‘ or revmme to the ports of one State over those of 
another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State 1 k' 
oblig(Ml to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in 
consecinence of appropriations made by law; and a regular 
statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
all public money shall i)e published from time to time. 

8. No title of noi)ility shall be granted by the United 
States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust 
under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, ac- 
c('pt of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind 
whatever, fi-om any king, prince, or foreign State. 

Section X. 

1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 



THE COMIMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


2 ()() 


ft'dt'nilioii; .uraiit letters of iiianivie and reprisal; coin money; 
emit bills of c-redit; make anytliiiii;- but gold and silver 
coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attain- 
d('r, ex post faeto law, or law impairing the obligation of 
eontraets, or grant any titl(‘ of nobility. 

2. No State sliail, without the consent of Congress, lay 
any imposts or duties on imports or exi)orts, except what 
may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection 
laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by 
any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
th(‘ Trc'asuiy of the Thiited States; and all such laws shall 
b(' subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No Stat(‘ shall, without the consent of tlu' (’ongress, 
lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in 
liim- of i)eace, (uiter into any agreement or compact with 
another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, 
unless actually invaded or in sucli immiiKmt danger as 
will not admit of delav. 

AUTICEE II. 

^Section [. 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a Dresident of 
the United States of. America. He shall hold his ollice 
during the term of four yc'ars, and together with the Vice- 
President, chos('n for the same term, i)e elect('d as follows: 

2. Each State shall appoint, in sneh manner as the legis¬ 
lature thereof may direct, a number of (‘lectors, (‘(pial to 
the whol(‘ numb(‘r of Senators and Kepresentatives to 
which the State ina.y be entitled in the Congress; but no 
Senator or Itepresentative, or person holding an ollice of 
trust or protit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an elector. 

ii. [The electors shall meet in their respc'ctive States and 
vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at h'ast shall 
not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselv(‘s. 
And they shall make a list of all the pewsons votial for, 
and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit s(‘aled to the seat of govern¬ 
ment of the United States, directi'd to the President of tlu' 
Senate. The Pi’esident otMhe Senate shall, in the presence 
of the Senat(‘ and House of Kepresentatives, open all the 
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The per¬ 
son having the greatc'st number of votes shall l)e the Presi¬ 
dent, if such a number be a majm-ity of the whole number 
of electors ai)point('d; and if there be moi’e than one who 
havt‘ such majority, and have an ecpial number of votes, 
llien the House of Ucpre.sentatives shall immediately choose 
by ballot one of them for President; and if no p(‘rson have 
a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
House shall in like manner choos(‘ the Pi-esident. P>ut in 
chc.osing the President the votes shall be taken by States, 


T11 K C( )NSTITUTION 


207 


the representation from each State liavin^>- one vote; a 
<luornin lor this purpose sliall consist of a member or mem- 
hers from tAVo thirds of the States, and a majority of all 
the States shall ])e necessary to a choice. In every case, 
after the choice of the President, the person haviiii;- the 
.^reatest nninber of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- 
President. Blit if there should remain two or more who 
ha\e eciiial votes, the Senate shall choose from them by bal¬ 
lot the \'ice-l*resident. p 

bSoe Amendments, Art. XII. 

4. 4'he CoiifiTess may determine the time of choosinj? the 
electors and the day on which they shall j;ive their votes, 
which day shall be the same throiishont the United States. 

b. Xo person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen 
of tlie United States at the time of tlie adoption of this 
(’onstitiition, shall be elij;ible to the office of President; 
neither shall any person be eligible to that ottice who shall 
not have attained to the ajie of thirty-five years, and been 
fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

<). In case of the removal of the President from office, or 
of his death, resijiiiation, or inability to discharge the 
I'owers and duties of the said ottice, the same shall devolve 
on the Vice-I’resident, and the Congress may by law pro¬ 
vide for tlie case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, 
both of the President and Vice-lh-esident, declaring Avhat 
officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act 
accordingly until the disability be removed or a President 
shall be elected, 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his 
services a com])ensation, which shall neither be increased 
nor diminished during the period for which he shall have 
been elected, and he shall not receive within that period 
any other emolnment from the United States or any of 
them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall 
take the following oath or affirmation; 

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faitlifnlly 
execute the office of I’resident of the United States, and 
will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend 
the Constitution of the United States.” 

Sectioti II. 

1. The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia 
of the several States when called into the actual service 
of the United States; he may reipiire the opinion, in writ¬ 
ing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart¬ 
ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their re¬ 
spective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
and pardons for offenses against the United States, except 
in cases of impeachment. 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


2m 


2. lie shall have power, by and with the adviee and eon- 
sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thiials 
of the Senators present eonenr; and he shall nominate, 
and, by and with the adviee and consent of the Senate, 
shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and con¬ 
suls, jnd^^es of the Supreme Court, and all other otticers 
of the United States, whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by 
law; hut the Congress may by law vest the appointment of 
such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the Uresident 
alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

M. The President shall have power to till up all vacancies 
that may happen durinj>’ the recess of the Senate, by j;rant- 
in^’ commissions which shall expire at the end of their next 
session. 

Hcction III. 

He shall from time to time ,u‘ive to the Conj^ress infor¬ 
mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
consideration such measures as he shall judj»e necessary 
and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, con¬ 
vene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis¬ 
agreement ])etween them with respect to the time of ad¬ 
journment, he imiy adjourn them to such time as he shall 
think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other pub¬ 
lic ministers: he shall take care that the laws he faithfully 
( xecuted, and shall commission all the officers of the United 
States. 

Section IV. 

The President, Vice-l’resident and all civil officers of the 
United States shall he removed from office on impeachment 
foi- and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes 
and misdemeanors. 

APT I CUE III. 

Section I. 

The judicial power of the United States shall he vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the 
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. 
The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall 
hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated 
times, receive for their services a compensation which shall 
not he diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section 11. 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
and ecpiity, arising under this (\)nstitution, the laws of the 
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, 
other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admir¬ 
alty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to whieh 
the United States shall be a party; to controversies beUveen 
two or more States; between a State and citizens of an- 


THE CONSTITUTION 


269 


other State; between citizens of different States; between 
citizens of the same State claiminj? lands under grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the citizens there¬ 
of, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 

2. Ill all cases, affecting ambassadors, other public min¬ 
isters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a 
paity, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction, 
in all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court 
shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, 
with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the 
('ongress shall make. 

.3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach¬ 
ment, shall l>e by jury; and such trial shall be held In the 
State where the said crimes shall have been committed; 
but when not committed witliin any State, the trial shall 
be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 

Section III. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their ene¬ 
mies. giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be con- 
\ icted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses 
to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2. Qdie Congress shall have power to declare the punish¬ 
ment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work 
corruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of 
the person attainted. 

AirncLE IV. 

Section I. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the 
public Ticts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe 
the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings 
shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section II. 

1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi¬ 
leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, 
or other crime, wlio shall flee from justice, and be found in 
another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority 
of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re¬ 
moved to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. No i)erson held to service or labor in one State, under 
the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in conse- 
(luence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from 
such serviceor labor, but shall be delivered up on claim 
of tlie party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Section III. 

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within 


270 


THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State l)e formed 
by the junction of two or more States or parts of vStates, 
without the consent of the le.aislatnres of the States con¬ 
cerned as well as of the Congress. 

2, The Congi-css shall have power to dispose of and make 
all needful rules and regnlations respecting the territory 
or other property belonging to the United States; and noth¬ 
ing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to preju¬ 
dice any claims of the United States or of any particular 
State. 

Section 1]’. 

The United States shall gnai’antee to every State in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect 
each of them against invasion, and on applieation of the 
legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot 
be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall 
<Ieeni it necessary, shall propose amendnuuits to this Con¬ 
stitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two 
thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro¬ 
posing amendments, which in either case shall be valid to 
all intents and puri)oses as part of this Constitution, when 
ratitied by the legislatures of three fourths of the several 
States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the 
one or the other mode of ratilication may be proposed by 
the Congress, provided 'that no amendment which may be 
made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight sliall in any manner atfect the first and fourth clauses 
in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, 
without its consent, sliall be deprived of its eipial suf¬ 
frage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE YI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, 
before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid 
against the United States under this Constitution as under 
the Confedei’ation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and 
,the judges in every State shall lx; bound thereby, anything 
in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

8. The Senators and Reiiri'sentatives before mentioned, 
and the members of the several State legislatures, and all 
executive and judicial ofhcers both of the United States 
and of the several States, sh.all be bound by oath or afhr- 
mation to support this Constitution; but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a (lualification to any office or 
public trust under the United States. 


THE CONSTITUTION 


271 


AUTICUE VIL 

The ratihcatioii of the coin'eiitioiis of nine States shall 
be siittieient for the estahlishnient of this Constitution be¬ 
tween the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in eonvoiition by the iinaninioiis eonsent of the 
States present, the seventeenth clay of September, in 
the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and 
eijiiity-seven, and of the Independence of the United 
States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, 
Ave have hereunto sul)scribed our names. 

(Jeorjie Washington, I’resident, and Deputy from Virginia. 
New Hami’Shire— John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
Massacmiusetts —Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. 
Connecticut —William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
New York— Alexander Hamilton. 

New Jersey— William Livingston, David Brearly, William 
Uatterson, Jonathan Dayton. 

Uennsyev^ania —Renjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Rob¬ 
ert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared 
Ingm'soll, Janies Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. 

Delaware— George React, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John 
Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. 

Maryland— James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jeni- 
f( r, Daniel Cari'oll. 

\ irginia— John Blair, .Tames Madison, Jr. 

North C'arolina —William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

South Carolina —John Rutlcnlge, Charles Cotesworth 
Finckney, (hiaiTes Finckney, Fierce Butler. 

Georgia —William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 
AMENDMENTS.^ 

LVmendments I. to X. were adopted in 1791. 

ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment 
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or 
abridging the freedom of speech or of the jiress; or the 
I'ight of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition 
the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security 
of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear 
arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of pc^ace, be quartered in any 
house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of 
war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
house's, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches 


272 


THE COMMUNIUY AND TAE CITIZEN 


and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall 
issue but upon probable cause, sni)port(*d by oath or afiir- 
ination, and particularly describing the place to be searclu'd 
and the persons or things to be seized. 

AKTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or other¬ 
wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indict¬ 
ment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land 
or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service 
in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be 
subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to 
be a Mutuess against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty 
or property, Avithout due process of law; nor shall private 
inoperty be taken for public use Avithout just compensji- 
tion. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal lArosecutions the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of 
the State and district AAdierein the crime shall have been 
committed, AAdiich district shall haA'e been previously as¬ 
certained by hiAV, and to be informed of the nature and 
cause of the accusation; to be confronted AAith the Avit- 
nesses against him, to have compulsory process for obtain¬ 
ing Avitnesses in his favor, and to luiA^e the assistance of 
counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common laAV, Avhere the value in controversy 
shall exceed tAventy dollars, the right of trial by jury shall 
be preserved, and no facts tried by a jury shall be other- 
Avise re-examined in any court of the United States, than 
according to the rules of the common laAV. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive lines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments intlicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained 
by the people. ^ 

ARTICLE X. 

The poAvers not delegated to the United States by the 
(Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved 
to the States respectively or to the people, 

ARTICLE XI.^ 

LVdopted in 1798. 

The judicial poAver of the United States shall not be con¬ 
strued to extend to any suit in laAV or ecpiity, commenc(‘d 
or i)r(>secuted against one of the United States by citizens 
of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign 
State. 


tup: constituuion 


273 


AKTICLE XI1.= 

^Vdoptrd ill 1S04. 

1. 4 ho electors shall meet in their respective States and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of 
whom, at least, shall not he an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the 
person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the 
persons voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make 
distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of 
all persons voted for as Vice-l’resident, and of the number 
of votes for each; which lists they shall sij;n and certify, 
and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the 
Ihiited States, directed to the President of the Senate. The 
President of the Seiaite shall, in the presence of the Senate 
and House of Kepresentatives, open all the certificates and 
the votes shall then be counted. The person having the 
greatest luimher of votes for Ih'esident sluill be the I*resi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number 
of ('lectors appointed; and if no person have such majority, 
(hen from the persons having the highest numbers not ex- 
c(*eding three on the list of those vot(‘d for as President, 
the House' of Representatives shall choose immediately, 
by ballot, the President. Rut in choosing the President the 
Mjtcs shall be takem by States, the representation from 
each State having one vote; a (luoruin for this purpose shall 
consist of a member or members from two thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary 
to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not 
choose a President whenever the right of choice shall de¬ 
volve upon them, before the fourth day of March next 
follOAving, then the Vice-President shall act as President, 
as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability 
of the President. 

2. The person having the greatest nund)er of votes as 
Mce-Pi-esident shall l)e the Vice-President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two high¬ 
est numlK'rs on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice- 
President; a (luorum for the purpose shall consist of two 
thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of 
the whole numi)er shall l)e necessary to a choice. 

3. Pmt no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of 
Piesident shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the 
Thiited States. 

ARTICLE XHI.^ ^ 

hVdopted in ISOf). 

1. iXeither slavery nor involuntary seryitude, except as a 
I)unishment for crime Avhercof the party shall have been 
duly convicted, shall exi.st within the United States or any 
place subject to their jurisdiction. 


274 


TAE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 


2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article hy 
appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XlV.i 

L\(lopted in 18()8. 

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and snhject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States and of the State wherein they reside. No 
State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge 
the privileges or iminnnities of citizens of the United 
States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, lib¬ 
erty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to 
any person within its jurisdiction the ecpial protection of 
the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the 
whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians 
not taxed. Rut when the right to vote at any election for 
the choice of electors for l*resident and Vice-l’resident of 
the United States, Representatives in Congress, the execu- 
ti^e and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants 
of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens 
of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of rep¬ 
resentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in 
such State. 

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con¬ 
gress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold 
any office, civil or military, under the United States or 
under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as 
a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, 
or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive 
or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution 
of the United States, shall have engageil in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two 
thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment 
of i)ensions and bounties for services in suppressing insur¬ 
rection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither 
the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any 
d(‘bt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebei- 
4ion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or 
emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, 
and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

ry. The (Vmgress shall hav(^ power to enforce, by appro¬ 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 


TIIK CONSTITUTION 


275 


ARTICLE XV.* 

1. Tho rifjht of citize ns of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or ahnd,a:e'd by the United States or by any 
State on aeconnt of race, color, or i)revions condition of 
servitude. 

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by approi)riate h'oislation. 

‘Adopted ill 1870. 


SEP 21 1906 


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